Aav virions with decreased immunoreactivity and uses therefor

ABSTRACT

Methods of making and using recombinant AAV virions with decreased immunoreactivity are described. The recombinant AAV virions include mutated capsid proteins or are derived from non-primate mammalian AAV serotypes and isolates that display decreased immunoreactivity relative to AAV-2.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.11/825,798, filed Jul. 9, 2007, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 10/873,632, filed Jun. 21, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No.7,259,151, from which applications priority is claimed pursuant to 35U.S.C. §120. U.S. application Ser. No. 10/873,632 claims the benefitunder 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of provisional application Ser. No. 60/480,395,filed Jun. 19, 2003; 60/567,310, filed Apr. 30, 2004; and 60/576,501,filed Jun. 3, 2004. All of the foregoing applications are herebyincorporated by reference in their entireties.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates generally to compositions and methods fordelivering recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) virions to cells.In particular, the present invention pertains to rAAV virions withdecreased immunoreactivity, such as mutant rAAV virions, and methods ofmaking and using the same.

BACKGROUND

Scientists are continually discovering genes that are associated withhuman diseases such as diabetes, hemophilia, and cancer. Researchefforts have also uncovered genes, such as erythropoietin (whichincreases red blood cell production), that are not associated withgenetic disorders but instead code for proteins that can be used totreat numerous diseases. Despite significant progress in the effort toidentify and isolate genes, however, a major obstacle facing thebiopharmaceutical industry is how to safely and persistently delivertherapeutically effective quantities of gene products to patients.

Generally, the protein products of these genes are synthesized incultured bacterial, yeast, insect, mammalian, or other cells anddelivered to patients by direct injection. Injection of recombinantproteins has been successful but suffers from several drawbacks. Forexample, patients often require weekly, and sometimes daily, injectionsin order to maintain the necessary levels of the protein in thebloodstream. Even then, the concentration of protein is not maintainedat physiological levels—the level of the protein is usually abnormallyhigh immediately following the injection, and far below optimal levelsprior to the injection. Additionally, injected delivery of recombinantprotein often cannot deliver the protein to the target cells, tissues,or organs in the body. And, if the protein successfully reaches itstarget, it may be diluted to a non-therapeutic level. Furthermore, themethod is inconvenient and often restricts the patient's lifestyle.

These shortcomings have fueled the desire to develop gene therapymethods for delivering sustained levels of specific proteins intopatients. These methods are designed to allow clinicians to introducedeoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) coding for a nucleic acid, such as atherapeutic gene, directly into a patient (in vivo gene therapy) or intocells isolated from a patient or a donor (ex vivo gene therapy). Theintroduced nucleic acid then directs the patient's own cells or graftedcells to produce the desired protein product. Gene delivery, therefore,obviates the need for frequent injections. Gene therapy may also allowclinicians to select specific organs or cellular targets (e.g., muscle,blood cells, brain cells, etc.) for therapy.

DNA may be introduced into a patient's cells in several ways. There aretransfection methods, including chemical methods such as calciumphosphate precipitation and liposome-mediated transfection, and physicalmethods such as electroporation. In general, transfection methods arenot suitable for in vivo gene delivery. There are also methods that userecombinant viruses. Current viral-mediated gene delivery vectorsinclude those based on retrovirus, adenovirus, herpes virus, pox virus,and adeno-associated virus (AAV). Like the retroviruses, and unlikeadenovirus, AAV has the ability to integrate its genome into a host cellchromosome.

Adeno-Associated Virus-Mediated Gene Therapy

AAV is a parvovirus belonging to the genus Dependovirus, and has severalattractive features not found in other viruses. For example, AAV caninfect a wide range of host cells, including non-dividing cells. AAV canalso infect cells from different species. Importantly, AAV has not beenassociated with any human or animal disease, and does not appear toalter the physiological properties of the host cell upon integration.Furthermore, AAV is stable at a wide range of physical and chemicalconditions, which lends itself to production, storage, andtransportation requirements.

The AAV genome, a linear, single-stranded DNA molecule containingapproximately 4700 nucleotides (the AAV-2 genome consists of 4681nucleotides), generally comprises an internal non-repeating segmentflanked on each end by inverted terminal repeats (ITRs). The ITRs areapproximately 145 nucleotides in length (AAV-1 has ITRs of 143nucleotides) and have multiple functions, including serving as originsof replication, and as packaging signals for the viral genome.

The internal non-repeated portion of the genome includes two large openreading frames (ORFs), known as the AAV replication (rep) and capsid(cap) regions. These ORFs encode replication and capsid gene products,respectively: replication and capsid gene products (i.e., proteins)allow for the replication, assembly, and packaging of a complete AAVvirion. More specifically, a family of at least four viral proteins areexpressed from the AAV rep region: Rep 78, Rep 68, Rep 52, and Rep 40,all of which are named for their apparent molecular weights. The AAV capregion encodes at least three proteins: VP1, VP2, and VP3.

In nature, AAV is a helper virus-dependent virus, i.e., it requiresco-infection with a helper virus (e.g., adenovirus, herpesvirus, orvaccinia virus) in order to form functionally complete AAV virions. Inthe absence of co-infection with a helper virus, AAV establishes alatent state in which the viral genome inserts into a host cellchromosome or exists in an episomal form, but infectious virions are notproduced. Subsequent infection by a helper virus “rescues” theintegrated genome, allowing it to be replicated and packaged into viralcapsids, thereby reconstituting the infectious virion. While AAV caninfect cells from different species, the helper virus must be of thesame species as the host cell. Thus, for example, human AAV willreplicate in canine cells that have been co-infected with a canineadenovirus.

To construct infectious recombinant AAV (rAAV) containing a nucleicacid, a suitable host cell line is transfected with an AAV vectorcontaining a nucleic acid. AAV helper functions and accessory functionsare then expressed in the host cell. Once these factors come together,the HNA is replicated and packaged as though it were a wild-type (wt)AAV genome, forming a recombinant virion. When a patient's cells areinfected with the resulting rAAV, the HNA enters and is expressed in thepatient's cells. Because the patient's cells lack the rep and cap genes,as well as the adenovirus accessory function genes, the rAAV arereplication defective; that is, they cannot further replicate andpackage their genomes. Similarly, without a source of rep and cap genes,wtAAV cannot be formed in the patient's cells.

There are several AAV serotypes that infect humans as well as otherprimates and mammals. Eight major serotypes have been identified, AAV-1through AAV-8, including two serotypes recently isolated from rhesusmonkeys. Gao et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:11854-11859. Ofthose serotypes, AAV-2 is the best characterized, having been used tosuccessfully deliver transgenes to several cell lines, tissue types, andorgans in a variety of in vitro and in vivo assays. The variousserotypes of AAV can be distinguished from one another using monoclonalantibodies or by employing nucleotide sequence analysis; e.g., AAV-1,AAV-2, AAV-3, and AAV-6 are 82% identical at the nucleotide level, whileAAV-4 is 75 to 78% identical to the other serotypes (Russell et al.(1998) J. Virol. 72:309-319). Significant nucleotide sequence variationis noted for regions of the AAV genome that code for capsid proteins.Such variable regions may be responsible for differences in serologicalreactivity to the capsid proteins of the various AAV serotypes.

After an initial treatment with a given AAV serotype, anti-AAV capsidneutralizing antibodies are often made which prevent subsequenttreatments by the same serotype. For example, Moskalenko et al. J.Virol. (2000) 74:1761-1766 showed that mice with pre-existing anti-AAV-2antibodies, when administered Factor IX in a recombinant AAV-2 virion,failed to express the Factor IX transgene, suggesting that theanti-AAV-2 antibodies blocked transduction of the rAAV-2 virion. Halbertet al. J. Virol. (1998) 72:9795-9805 reported similar results. Othershave demonstrated successful readministration of rAAV-2 virions intoexperimental animals, but only after immune suppression is achieved(see, e.g., Halbert et al., supra).

Thus, using rAAV for human gene therapy is potentially problematicbecause anti-AAV antibodies are prevalent in human populations.Infection of humans by a variety of AAV serotypes occurs in childhood,and possibly even in utero. In fact, one study estimated that at least80% of the general population has been infected with AAV-2 (Berns andLinden (1995) Bioessays 17:237-245). Neutralizing anti-AAV-2 antibodieshave been found in at least 20-40% of humans. Our studies have shownthat out of a group of 50 hemophiliacs, approximately 40% had AAV-2neutralizing capacities exceeding 1e13 viral particles/ml, or about 6e16viral particles/total blood volume. Furthermore, the majority of thegroup with high anti-AAV-2 titers also had significant titers againstother AAV serotypes, such as AAV-1, AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5 and AAV-6.Therefore, identification of AAV mutants with reduced immunoreactivity,such as mutants that are not neutralized by pre-existing anti-AAVantibodies, would be a significant advancement in the art. Such AAVmutants are described herein.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is based on the discovery of novel AAV sequences,such as mutated AAV sequences, that provide for recombinant AAV virionswith decreased immunoreactivity as compared with the correspondingnative serotype but which retain the ability to efficiently transducecells and tissues. The rAAV virions with decreased immunoreactivity areespecially useful for delivering heterologous nucleic acid molecules(HNAs) to subjects that have been previously exposed to AAV, either bynatural infection or due to previous gene therapy or nucleic acidimmunization treatments, and have therefore developed anti-AAVantibodies. The rAAV virions described herein are therefore useful fortreating or preventing a wide variety of disorders, as described furtherbelow, in vertebrate subjects that have been previously exposed to anyof the various AAV serotypes. In accordance with the present invention,then, methods and AAV vectors for use therein are provided for theefficient delivery of HNAs to the cells or tissue of a vertebratesubject, such as a mammal, using recombinant AAV virions.

In certain preferred embodiments, the present invention provides for theuse of AAV virions containing altered capsid proteins to deliver an HNAencoding antisense RNA, ribozymes, or one or more genes that expressproteins, wherein expression of said antisense RNA, ribozymes, or one ormore genes provides for a biological effect in a mammalian subject. Inone embodiment, the rAAV virions containing an HNA are injected directlyinto a muscle (e.g., cardiac, smooth and/or skeletal muscle). In anotherembodiment, the rAAV virions containing an HNA are administered into thevasculature via injection into veins, arteries, or other vascularconduits, or by using techniques such as isolated limb perfusion.

In additional embodiments, the virions contain a gene encoding a bloodcoagulation protein which, when expressed at a sufficient concentration,provides for a therapeutic effect, such as improved blood-clottingefficiency of a mammal suffering from a blood-clotting disorder. Theblood-clotting disorder can be any disorder adversely affecting theorganism's ability to coagulate the blood. Preferably, the bloodclotting disorder is hemophilia. In one embodiment, then, the geneencoding a blood coagulation protein is a Factor VIII gene, such as thehuman Factor VIII gene or a derivation thereof. In another embodiment,the gene encoding a blood coagulation protein is a Factor IX gene, suchas the human Factor IX (hF.IX) gene.

Accordingly, in one embodiment, the present invention is directed to amutated AAV capsid protein that when present in an AAV virion impartsdecreased immunoreactivity to the virion as compared to thecorresponding wild-type virion. The mutation may comprise at least oneamino acid substitution, deletion or insertion to the native protein,such as a substitution is in the spike or plateau region of the AAVvirion surface.

In certain embodiments, the amino acid substitution comprises asubstitution of one or more of the amino acids occurring at a positioncorresponding to a position of the AAV-2 VP2 capsid selected from thegroup consisting of amino acid 126, 127, 128, 130, 132, 134, 247, 248,315, 334, 354, 357, 360, 361, 365, 372, 375, 377, 390, 393, 394, 395,396, 407, 411, 413, 418, 437, 449, 450, 568, 569, and 571. In additionalembodiments, the naturally occurring amino acid at one or more of thesepositions is substituted with an alanine. In further embodiments, theprotein further comprises a substitution of histidine for the amino acidoccurring at the position corresponding to the amino acid found atposition 360 of AAV-2 VP2 and/or a substitution of lysine for the aminoacid occurring at the position corresponding to the amino acid found atposition 571 of AAV-2 VP2.

In additional embodiments, the invention is directed to a polynucleotideencoding any of the mutated proteins described above.

In further embodiments, the invention is directed to a recombinant AAVvirion comprising any of the mutated proteins described above. Therecombinant AAV virion can comprise a heterologous nucleic acid moleculeencoding an antisense RNA or a ribozymes, or a heterologous nucleic acidmolecule encoding a therapeutic protein operably linked to controlelements capable of directing the in vivo transcription and translationof said protein.

In yet further embodiments, the invention is directed to a method ofdelivering a recombinant AAV virion to a cell or tissue of a vertebratesubject. The method comprises:

(a) providing a recombinant AAV virion as above;

(b) delivering the recombinant AAV virion to the cell or tissue, wherebythe protein is expressed at a level that provides a therapeutic effect.

In certain embodiments, the cell or tissue is a muscle cell or tissue.The muscle cell or tissue can be derived from skeletal muscle.

In further embodiments, the recombinant AAV virion is delivered into thecell or tissue in vivo.

In certain embodiments, the recombinant AAV virion is delivered byintramuscular injection, or into the bloodstream, such as intravenouslyor intraarterially. In additional embodiments, the recombinant AAVvirion is delivered to the liver or to the brain.

In further embodiments, the recombinant AAV virion is delivered intosaid cell or tissue in vitro.

In yet an additional embodiment, the invention is directed to a methodof delivering a recombinant AAV virion to a cell or tissue of avertebrate subject. The method comprises:

(a) providing a recombinant AAV virion, wherein the AAV virion comprises

-   -   (i) a non-primate, mammalian adeno-associated virus (AAV) capsid        protein that when present in an AAV virion imparts decreased        immunoreactivity to the virion as compared to immunoreactivity        of primate AAV-2; and    -   (ii) a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding a therapeutic        protein operably linked to control elements capable of directing        the in vivo transcription and translation of the protein;

(b) delivering the recombinant AAV virion to the cell or tissue, wherebythe protein is expressed at a level that provides a therapeutic effect.

In certain embodiments, the cell or tissue is a muscle cell or tissue,such as a muscle cell or tissue is derived from skeletal muscle.

The recombinant AAV virion is delivered into said cell or tissue in vivoor in vitro and can be delivered to the subject by intramuscularinjection, or into the bloodstream, such as intravenously orintraarterially. In additional embodiments, the recombinant AAV virionis delivered to the liver or to the brain.

These and other embodiments of the subject invention will readily occurto those of skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 illustrates the location of an asymmetrical structural unit(white triangle) of AAV-2 on the surface of the entire virus (taken fromFIG. 3a of Xie et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (2002) 99:10405-10410).There are 60 identical asymmetric structural units per AAV virion. Atleast 145 amino acids out of a total of 735 in each AAV-2 capsomere areexposed, to varying degrees, on the surface.

FIG. 2 illustrates the location of some of the amino acids that weremutated as described in the examples within an asymmetric unit (blacktriangle) of the AAV-2 structure. The amino acids that were mutated areshown as black space-filling models, while those that were not mutatedare shown as white stick models. The location of major surface features(spike, cylinder, plateau, canyon) is indicated and the approximateboundaries of these features are shown by thin circular black lines. The“canyon” regions, predicted to be relatively inaccessible to antibodybinding, are located in the areas between the spike, cylinder, andplateau. The numbers 2, 3 and 5 represent the 2-, 3-, and 5-fold axes ofsymmetry, respectively.

FIG. 3 indicates the location of mutations that have <10-fold effect onin vitro transduction. Mutations located at black space-filling aminoacids, <10% wild type transduction. The numbers 2, 3 and 5 represent 2-,3- and 5-fold axes of symmetry, respectively.

FIG. 4 indicates the location of mutations that have >10-fold effect onin vitro transduction. Mutations located at black space-filling aminoacids, <10% wild type transduction. The numbers 2, 3 and 5 represent 2-,3- and 5-fold axes of symmetry, respectively. The approximate boundariesof two dead zones spanning the 2-fold axis of symmetry is indicated.

FIG. 5 illustrates the location of some of the AAV-2 capsid mutantsdefective in heparin binding. Black amino acids designateheparin-defective mutants identified herein. Black amino acidsillustrated as space-filling models (347, 350, 356, 375, 395, 448, 451)are on the surface. Grey amino acids illustrated as space-filling models(495, 592) are just under the surface. The numbers 2, 3 and 5 representthe 2-, 3- and 5-fold axes of symmetry, respectively. Mutants that havemore than a 100-fold effect on heparin binding are enclosed in circles.

FIG. 6 illustrates the location of some of the amino acids (blackspace-filling model) on the surface of the AAV-2 capsid that conferresistance to neutralization by a mouse monoclonal antibody when theyare individually mutated. The rectangular box represents the approximatesize of an antibody binding site (25 Å×35 Å). The numbers 2, 3, and 5represent the 2-, 3- and 5-fold axes of symmetry, respectively.

FIG. 7 illustrates the location of some of the amino acids (blackspace-filling model) on the surface of the AAV-2 capsid that conferresistance to neutralization by multiple human antisera. The rectangularbox represents the approximate size of an antibody binding site (25 Å×35Å). The numbers 2, 3, and 5 represent the 2-, 3- and 5-fold axes ofsymmetry, respectively.

FIG. 8 shows mouse monoclonal antibody titration properties of fourAAV-2 capsid mutants compared to AAV-2 with a wild-type capsid.

FIG. 9 shows the amino acid sequence of an AAV-2 VP2 (SEQ ID NO:12).

FIG. 10 shows the amino acid sequence of an AAV-2 VP1 (SEQ ID NO:13).

FIG. 11 shows the relative positions of AAV-2 capsid proteins VP1, VP2and VP3. As shown in the figure, VP1, VP2 and VP3 share the same 533C-terminal amino acids which make up VP3. As shown in the figure, allcapsid mutants described herein fall within the shared area.

FIGS. 12A-12B show a comparison of the nucleotide sequence encoding theAAV VP1 protein from a primate AAV-5 (SEQ ID NO:14) and a caprine AAV(SEQ ID NO:15). Numbering is relative to the AAV-5 full-length sequence.

FIG. 13 shows a comparison of the amino acid sequence of VP1 from aprimate AAV-5 (SEQ ID NO:16) and a caprine AAV (SEQ ID NO:17). Aminoacid differences are shaded. Conservative changes are shown in lightgrey; non-conservative changes are shown in dark grey.

FIGS. 14A-14H show a comparison of the amino acid sequence of VP1s fromAAVs that are sensitive or resistant to antibody neutralization asfollows: primate AAV-2 (SEQ ID NO:13), primate AAV-3B (SEQ ID NO:18),primate AAV-6 (SEQ ID NO:19), primate AAV-1 (SEQ ID NO:20), primateAAV-8 (SEQ ID NO:21), primate AAV-4 (SEQ ID NO:22), primate AAV-5 (SEQID NO:16) and caprine (goat) AAV (SEQ ID NO:17). Parvovirus line: *,conserved in almost all parvoviruses. Neutralization line: #, locationof single mutations in AAV-2 capsid identified as resistant toneutralization by human sera. Accessibility line: B, amino acid isburied between the inside and outside surface; I, amino acid is found onthe inside surface; O, amino acid is found on the outside surface.Surface feature line: C, cylinder; P, plateau; S, spike; Y, canyon. DNAline: B, possible base contact; D, likely required for DNA binding butmay not directly contact DNA; P, possible phosphate contact; R, possibleribose contact. Other line: A, location of single mutations thatdecrease binding and neutralization by mouse monoclonal antibody A20; H,heparin contact in AAV-2; M, possible Mg2+ contact; P, phospholipase A2domain.

FIG. 15 (SEQ ID NOS: 16 and 17) shows the positions of the amino aciddifferences between AAV-5 and caprine AAV, relative to the surface ofthe AAV capsid.

FIG. 16 shows the predicted location of the surface amino acids thatdiffer between AAV-5 and caprine AAV, based on the surface structure ofthe AAV-2 capsid. The 3 filled triangles represent insertions in caprineAAV, relative to AAV-2, that are likely to be located on the surface.

FIG. 17 shows transduction of muscle in IVIG-treated SCID mice followingintramuscular administration of various rAAV hFIX virions.

FIG. 18 shows transduction of liver in IVIG-treated SCID mice followingtail vein administration of various rAAV hFIX virions.

FIG. 19 shows the biodistribution of human factor IX (hFIX) followintravenous administration of a recombinant caprine AAV vector encodingthe same.

FIG. 20A (SEQ ID NO:25) and 20B (SEQ ID NO:26) show the nucleotidesequence and amino acid sequence respectively, of a bovine AAV VP1, fromAAV-C1.

FIGS. 21A-21H show a comparison of the amino acid sequence of VP1s fromAAVs that are sensitive or resistant to antibody neutralization asfollows: primate AAV-2 (SEQ ID NO:13), primate AAV-3B (SEQ ID NO:18),primate AAV-6 (SEQ ID NO:19), primate AAV-1 (SEQ ID NO:20), primateAAV-8 (SEQ ID NO:21), primate AAV-4 (SEQ ID NO:22), bovine (cow) AAV(“AAV-C1” (SEQ ID NO:26), primate AAV-5 (SEQ ID NO:16) and caprine(goat) AAV (“AAV-C1” SEQ ID NO:17). Parvovirus line: *, conserved inalmost all parvoviruses. Neutralization line: #, location of singlemutations in AAV-2 capsid identified as resistant to neutralization byhuman sera. Accessibility line: B, amino acid is buried between theinside and outside surface; I, amino acid is found on the insidesurface; O, amino acid is found on the outside surface. Surface featureline: C, cylinder; P, plateau; S, spike; Y, canyon. DNA line: B,possible base contact; D, likely required for DNA binding but may notdirectly contact DNA; P, possible phosphate contact; R, possible ribosecontact. Other line: A, location of single mutations that decreasebinding and neutralization by mouse monoclonal antibody A20; H, heparincontact in AAV-2; M, possible Mg2+ contact; P, phospholipase A2 domain.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwiseindicated, conventional methods of chemistry, biochemistry, recombinantDNA techniques and immunology, within the skill of the art. Suchtechniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g., FundamentalVirology, 2nd Edition, vol. I & II (B. N. Fields and D. M. Knipe, eds.);Handbook of Experimental Immunology, Vols. I-IV (D. M. Weir and C. C.Blackwell eds., Blackwell Scientific Publications); T. E. Creighton,Proteins: Structures and Molecular Properties (W.H. Freeman and Company,1993); A. L. Lehninger, Biochemistry (Worth Publishers, Inc., currentaddition); Sambrook, et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual (2ndEdition, 1989); Methods In Enzymology (S. Colowick and N. Kaplan eds.,Academic Press, Inc.).

All publications, patents and patent applications cited herein, whethersupra or infra, are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

1. DEFINITIONS

In describing the present invention, the following terms will beemployed, and are intended to be defined as indicated below.

It must be noted that, as used in this specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” include plural referentsunless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,reference to “a polypeptide” includes a mixture of two or morepolypeptides, and the like.

The following amino acid abbreviations are used throughout the text:

Alanine: Ala (A) Arginine: Arg (R) Asparagine: Asn (N) Aspartic acid:Asp (D) Cysteine: Cys (C) Glutamine: Gln (Q) Glutamic acid: Glu (E)Glycine: Gly (G) Histidine: His (H) Isoleucine: Ile (I) Leucine: Leu (L)Lysine: Lys (K) Methionine: Met (M) Phenylalanine: Phe (F) Proline: Pro(P) Serine: Ser (S) Threonine: Thr (T) Tryptophan: Trp (W) Tyrosine: Tyr(Y) Valine: Val (V)

By “vector” is meant any genetic element, such as a plasmid, phage,transposon, cosmid, chromosome, virus, virion, etc., which is capable ofreplication when associated with the proper control elements and whichcan transfer gene sequences between cells. Thus, the term includescloning and expression vehicles, as well as viral vectors.

By an “AAV vector” is meant a vector derived from any adeno-associatedvirus serotype isolated from any animal species, including withoutlimitation, AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-7, AAV-8,AAV-G1 and AAV-C1. AAV vectors can have one or more of the AAV wild-typegenes deleted in whole or part, preferably the rep and/or cap genes, butretain functional flanking ITR sequences. Functional ITR sequences arenecessary for the rescue, replication and packaging of the AAV virion.Thus, an AAV vector is defined herein to include at least thosesequences required in cis for replication and packaging (e.g.,functional ITRs) of the virus. The ITRs need not be the wild-typenucleotide sequences, and may be altered, e.g., by the insertion,deletion or substitution of nucleotides, so long as the sequencesprovide for functional rescue, replication and packaging.

“AAV helper functions” refer to AAV-derived coding sequences which canbe expressed to provide AAV gene products that, in turn, function intrans for productive AAV replication. Thus, AAV helper functions includeboth of the major AAV open reading frames (ORFs), rep and cap. The Repexpression products have been shown to possess many functions,including, among others: recognition, binding and nicking of the AAVorigin of DNA replication; DNA helicase activity; and modulation oftranscription from AAV (or other heterologous) promoters. The Capexpression products supply necessary packaging functions. AAV helperfunctions are used herein to complement AAV functions in trans that aremissing from AAV vectors.

The term “AAV helper construct” refers generally to a nucleic acidmolecule that includes nucleotide sequences providing AAV functionsdeleted from an AAV vector which is to be used to produce a transducingvector for delivery of a nucleotide sequence of interest. AAV helperconstructs are commonly used to provide transient expression of AAV repand/or cap genes to complement missing AAV functions that are necessaryfor lytic AAV replication; however, helper constructs lack AAV ITRs andcan neither replicate nor package themselves. AAV helper constructs canbe in the form of a plasmid, phage, transposon, cosmid, virus, orvirion. A number of AAV helper constructs and vectors that encode Repand/or Cap expression products have been described. See, e.g., U.S. Pat.Nos. 6,001,650, 5,139,941 and 6,376,237, all incorporated herein byreference in their entireties; Samulski et al. (1989) J. Virol.63:3822-3828; and McCarty et al. (1991) J. Virol. 65:2936-2945.

The term “accessory functions” refers to non-AAV derived viral and/orcellular functions upon which AAV is dependent for its replication.Thus, the term captures proteins and RNAs that are required in AAVreplication, including those moieties involved in activation of AAV genetranscription, stage specific AAV mRNA splicing, AAV DNA replication,synthesis of Cap expression products and AAV capsid assembly.Viral-based accessory functions can be derived from any of the knownhelper viruses such as adenovirus, herpesvirus (other than herpessimplex virus type-1) and vaccinia virus.

The term “accessory function vector” refers generally to a nucleic acidmolecule that includes nucleotide sequences providing accessoryfunctions. An accessory function vector can be transfected into asuitable host cell, wherein the vector is then capable of supporting AAVvirion production in the host cell. Expressly excluded from the term areinfectious viral particles as they exist in nature, such as adenovirus,herpesvirus or vaccinia virus particles. Thus, accessory functionvectors can be in the form of a plasmid, phage, transposon or cosmid.

It has been demonstrated that the full-complement of adenovirus genesare not required for accessory helper functions. In particular,adenovirus mutants incapable of DNA replication and late gene synthesishave been shown to be permissive for AAV replication. Ito et al., (1970)J. Gen. Virol. 9:243; Ishibashi et al, (1971) Virology 45:317.Similarly, mutants within the E2B and E3 regions have been shown tosupport AAV replication, indicating that the E2B and E3 regions areprobably not involved in providing accessory functions. Carter et al.,(1983) Virology 126:505. However, adenoviruses defective in the E1region, or having a deleted E4 region, are unable to support AAVreplication. Thus, E1A and E4 regions are likely required for AAVreplication, either directly or indirectly. Laughlin et al., (1982) J.Virol. 41:868; Janik et al., (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78:1925;Carter et al., (1983) Virology 126:505. Other characterized Ad mutantsinclude: E1B (Laughlin et al. (1982), supra; Janik et al. (1981), supra;Ostrove et al., (1980) Virology 104:502); E2A (Handa et al., (1975) J.Gen. Virol. 29:239; Strauss et al., (1976) J. Virol. 17:140; Myers etal., (1980) J. Virol. 35:665; Jay et al., (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA 78:2927; Myers et al., (1981) J. Biol. Chem. 256:567); E2B (Carter,Adeno-Associated Virus Helper Functions, in I CRC Handbook ofParvoviruses (P. Tijssen ed., 1990)); E3 (Carter et al. (1983), supra);and E4 (Carter et al. (1983), supra; Carter (1995)). Although studies ofthe accessory functions provided by adenoviruses having mutations in theE1B coding region have produced conflicting results, Samulski et al.,(1988) J. Virol. 62:206-210, recently reported that E1B55k is requiredfor AAV virion production, while E1B19k is not. In addition,International Publication WO 97/17458 and Matshushita et al., (1998)Gene Therapy 5:938-945, describe accessory function vectors encodingvarious Ad genes. Particularly preferred accessory function vectorscomprise an adenovirus VA RNA coding region, an adenovirus E4 ORF6coding region, an adenovirus E2A 72 kD coding region, an adenovirus E1Acoding region, and an adenovirus E1B region lacking an intact E1B55kcoding region. Such vectors are described in International PublicationNo. WO 01/83797.

By “recombinant virus” is meant a virus that has been geneticallyaltered, e.g., by the addition or insertion of a heterologous nucleicacid construct into the particle.

By “AAV virion” is meant a complete virus particle, such as a wild-type(wt) AAV virus particle (comprising a linear, single-stranded AAVnucleic acid genome associated with an AAV capsid protein coat). In thisregard, single-stranded AAV nucleic acid molecules of eithercomplementary sense, e.g., “sense” or “antisense” strands, can bepackaged into any one AAV virion and both strands are equallyinfectious.

A “recombinant AAV virion,” or “rAAV virion” is defined herein as aninfectious, replication-defective virus including an AAV protein shell,encapsidating a heterologous nucleotide sequence of interest which isflanked on both sides by AAV ITRs. A rAAV virion is produced in asuitable host cell which has had an AAV vector, AAV helper functions andaccessory functions introduced therein. In this manner, the host cell isrendered capable of encoding AAV polypeptides that are required forpackaging the AAV vector (containing a recombinant nucleotide sequenceof interest) into infectious recombinant virion particles for subsequentgene delivery.

A “caprine recombinant AAV virion” or “caprine rAAV virion” is a rAAVvirion as described above that has been produced using AAV helperfunctions that include a gene encoding a caprine capsid protein, such ascaprine VP1.

A “bovine recombinant AAV virion” or “bovine rAAV virion” is a rAAVvirion as described above that has been produced using AAV helperfunctions that include a gene encoding a bovine capsid protein, such asa bovine VP1.

The term “transfection” is used to refer to the uptake of foreign DNA bya cell, and a cell has been “transfected” when exogenous DNA has beenintroduced inside the cell membrane. A number of transfection techniquesare generally known in the art. See, e.g., Graham et al. (1973)Virology, 52:456, Sambrook et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning, a laboratorymanual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories, New York, Davis et al. (1986)Basic Methods in Molecular Biology, Elsevier, and Chu et al. (1981) Gene13:197. Such techniques can be used to introduce one or more exogenousDNA moieties, such as a nucleotide integration vector and other nucleicacid molecules, into suitable host cells.

The term “host cell” denotes, for example, microorganisms, yeast cells,insect cells, and mammalian cells, that can be, or have been, used asrecipients of an AAV helper construct, an AAV vector plasmid, anaccessory function vector, or other transfer DNA. The term includes theprogeny of the original cell which has been transfected. Thus, a “hostcell” as used herein generally refers to a cell which has beentransfected with an exogenous DNA sequence. It is understood that theprogeny of a single parental cell may not necessarily be completelyidentical in morphology or in genomic or total DNA complement as theoriginal parent, due to natural, accidental, or deliberate mutation.

As used herein, the term “cell line” refers to a population of cellscapable of continuous or prolonged growth and division in vitro. Often,cell lines are clonal populations derived from a single progenitor cell.It is further known in the art that spontaneous or induced changes canoccur in karyotype during storage or transfer of such clonalpopulations. Therefore, cells derived from the cell line referred to maynot be precisely identical to the ancestral cells or cultures, and thecell line referred to includes such variants.

“Homology” refers to the percent identity between two polynucleotide ortwo polypeptide moieties. Two DNA, or two polypeptide sequences are“substantially homologous” to each other when the sequences exhibit atleast about 50%, preferably at least about 75%, more preferably at leastabout 80%-85%, preferably at least about 90%, and most preferably atleast about 95%-98% sequence identity over a defined length of themolecules. As used herein, substantially homologous also refers tosequences showing complete identity to the specified DNA or polypeptidesequence.

In general, “identity” refers to an exact nucleotide-to-nucleotide oramino acid-to-amino acid correspondence of two polynucleotides orpolypeptide sequences, respectively. Percent identity can be determinedby a direct comparison of the sequence information between two moleculesby aligning the sequences, counting the exact number of matches betweenthe two aligned sequences, dividing by the length of the shortersequence, and multiplying the result by 100. Readily available computerprograms can be used to aid in the analysis, such as ALIGN, Dayhoff, M.O. in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure M. O. Dayhoff ed., 5Suppl. 3:353-358, National Biomedical Research Foundation, Washington,D.C., which adapts the local homology algorithm of Smith and WatermanAdvances in Appl. Math. 2:482-489, 1981 for peptide analysis. Programsfor determining nucleotide sequence identity are available in theWisconsin Sequence Analysis Package, Version 8 (available from GeneticsComputer Group, Madison, Wis.) for example, the BESTFIT, FASTA and GAPprograms, which also rely on the Smith and Waterman algorithm. Theseprograms are readily utilized with the default parameters recommended bythe manufacturer and described in the Wisconsin Sequence AnalysisPackage referred to above. For example, percent identity of a particularnucleotide sequence to a reference sequence can be determined using thehomology algorithm of Smith and Waterman with a default scoring tableand a gap penalty of six nucleotide positions.

Another method of establishing percent identity in the context of thepresent invention is to use the MPSRCH package of programs copyrightedby the University of Edinburgh, developed by John F. Collins and ShaneS. Sturrok, and distributed by IntelliGenetics, Inc. (Mountain View,Calif.). From this suite of packages the Smith-Waterman algorithm can beemployed where default parameters are used for the scoring table (forexample, gap open penalty of 12, gap extension penalty of one, and a gapof six). From the data generated the “Match” value reflects “sequenceidentity.” Other suitable programs for calculating the percent identityor similarity between sequences are generally known in the art, forexample, another alignment program is BLAST, used with defaultparameters. For example, BLASTN and BLASTP can be used using thefollowing default parameters: genetic code=standard; filter=none;strand=both; cutoff=60; expect=10; Matrix=BLOSUM62; Descriptions=50sequences; sort by=HIGH SCORE; Databases=non-redundant,GenBank+EMBL+DDBJ+PDB+GenBank CDS translations+Swissprotein+Spupdate+PIR. Details of these programs are well known in theart.

Alternatively, homology can be determined by hybridization ofpolynucleotides under conditions which form stable duplexes betweenhomologous regions, followed by digestion with single-stranded-specificnuclease(s), and size determination of the digested fragments. DNAsequences that are substantially homologous can be identified in aSouthern hybridization experiment under, for example, stringentconditions, as defined for that particular system. Defining appropriatehybridization conditions is within the skill of the art. See, e.g.,Sambrook et al., supra; DNA Cloning, supra; Nucleic Acid Hybridization,supra.

By the term “degenerate variant” is intended a polynucleotide containingchanges in the nucleic acid sequence thereof, that encodes a polypeptidehaving the same amino acid sequence as the polypeptide encoded by thepolynucleotide from which the degenerate variant is derived.

A “coding sequence” or a sequence which “encodes” a selectedpolypeptide, is a nucleic acid molecule which is transcribed (in thecase of DNA) and translated (in the case of mRNA) into a polypeptide invivo when placed under the control of appropriate regulatory sequences.The boundaries of the coding sequence are determined by a start codon atthe 5′ (amino) terminus and a translation stop codon at the 3′ (carboxy)terminus. A transcription termination sequence may be located 3′ to thecoding sequence.

The term “heterologous” as it relates to nucleic acid sequences such ascoding sequences and control sequences, denotes sequences that are notnormally joined together, and/or are not normally associated with aparticular cell. Thus, a “heterologous” region of a nucleic acidconstruct or a vector is a segment of nucleic acid within or attached toanother nucleic acid molecule that is not found in association with theother molecule in nature. For example, a heterologous region of anucleic acid construct could include a coding sequence flanked bysequences not found in association with the coding sequence in nature.Another example of a heterologous coding sequence is a construct wherethe coding sequence itself is not found in nature (e.g., syntheticsequences having codons different from the native gene). Similarly, acell transformed with a construct which is not normally present in thecell would be considered heterologous for purposes of this invention.Allelic variation or naturally occurring mutational events do not giverise to heterologous DNA, as used herein.

A “nucleic acid” sequence refers to a DNA or RNA sequence. The termcaptures sequences that include any of the known base analogues of DNAand RNA such as, but not limited to 4-acetylcytosine,8-hydroxy-N6-methyladenosine, aziridinylcytosine, pseudoisocytosine,5-(carboxyhydroxyl-methyl) uracil, 5-fluorouracil, 5-bromouracil,5-carboxymethylaminomethyl-2-thiouracil,5-carboxymethyl-aminomethyluracil, dihydrouracil, inosine,N6-isopentenyladenine, 1-methyladenine, 1-methylpseudo-uracil,1-methylguanine, 1-methylinosine, 2,2-dimethyl-guanine, 2-methyladenine,2-methylguanine, 3-methyl-cytosine, 5-methylcytosine, N6-methyladenine,7-methylguanine, 5-methylaminomethyluracil,5-methoxy-amino-methyl-2-thiouracil, beta-D-mannosylqueosine,5′-methoxycarbonylmethyluracil, 5-methoxyuracil,2-methylthio-N6-isopentenyladenine, uracil-5-oxyacetic acid methylester,uracil-5-oxyacetic acid, oxybutoxosine, pseudouracil, queosine,2-thiocytosine, 5-methyl-2-thiouracil, 2-thiouracil, 4-thiouracil,5-methyluracil, -uracil-5-oxyacetic acid methylester, uracil-5-oxyaceticacid, pseudouracil, queosine, 2-thiocytosine, and 2,6-diaminopurine.

The term DNA “control sequences” refers collectively to promotersequences, polyadenylation signals, transcription termination sequences,upstream regulatory domains, origins of replication, internal ribosomeentry sites (“IRES”), enhancers, and the like, which collectivelyprovide for the replication, transcription and translation of a codingsequence in a recipient cell. Not all of these control sequences needalways be present so long as the selected coding sequence is capable ofbeing replicated, transcribed and translated in an appropriate hostcell.

The term “promoter” is used herein in its ordinary sense to refer to anucleotide region comprising a DNA regulatory sequence, wherein theregulatory sequence is derived from a gene which is capable of bindingRNA polymerase and initiating transcription of a downstream(3′-direction) coding sequence. Transcription promoters can include“inducible promoters” (where expression of a polynucleotide sequenceoperably linked to the promoter is induced by an analyte, cofactor,regulatory protein, etc.), “repressible promoters” (where expression ofa polynucleotide sequence operably linked to the promoter is induced byan analyte, cofactor, regulatory protein, etc.), and “constitutivepromoters”.

“Operably linked” refers to an arrangement of elements wherein thecomponents so described are configured so as to perform their usualfunction. Thus, control sequences operably linked to a coding sequenceare capable of effecting the expression of the coding sequence. Thecontrol sequences need not be contiguous with the coding sequence, solong as they function to direct the expression thereof. Thus, forexample, intervening untranslated yet transcribed sequences can bepresent between a promoter sequence and the coding sequence and thepromoter sequence can still be considered “operably linked” to thecoding sequence.

By “isolated” when referring to a nucleotide sequence, is meant that theindicated molecule is present in the substantial absence of otherbiological macromolecules of the same type. Thus, an “isolated nucleicacid molecule which encodes a particular polypeptide” refers to anucleic acid molecule which is substantially free of other nucleic acidmolecules that do not encode the subject polypeptide; however, themolecule may include some additional bases or moieties which do notdeleteriously affect the basic characteristics of the composition.

For the purpose of describing the relative position of nucleotidesequences in a particular nucleic acid molecule throughout the instantapplication, such as when a particular nucleotide sequence is describedas being situated “upstream,” “downstream,” “3 prime (3′)” or “5 prime(5′)” relative to another sequence, it is to be understood that it isthe position of the sequences in the “sense” or “coding” strand of a DNAmolecule that is being referred to as is conventional in the art.

A “functional homologue,” or a “functional equivalent” of a given AAVpolypeptide includes molecules derived from the native polypeptidesequence, as well as recombinantly produced or chemically synthesizedpolypeptides which function in a manner similar to the reference AAVmolecule to achieve a desired result. Thus, a functional homologue ofAAV Rep68 or Rep78 encompasses derivatives and analogues of thosepolypeptides—including any single or multiple amino acid additions,substitutions and/or deletions occurring internally or at the amino orcarboxy termini thereof—so long as integration activity remains.

By “capable of efficient transduction” is meant that the mutatedconstructs of the invention provide for rAAV vectors or virions thatretain the ability to transfect cells in vitro and/or in vivo at a levelthat is within 1-10% of the transfection efficiency obtained using thecorresponding wild-type sequence. Preferably, the mutant retains theability to transfect cells or tissues at a level that is within 10-100%of the corresponding wild-type sequence. The mutated sequence may evenprovide for a construct with enhanced ability to transfect cells andtissues. Transduction efficiency is readily determined using techniqueswell known in the art, including the in vitro transduction assaydescribed in the Examples.

By “reduced immunoreactivity” is meant that the mutated AAV constructreacts with anti-AAV antibodies at a reduced level as compared to thecorresponding wild-type AAV construct. The term “antibody” as usedherein includes antibodies obtained from both polyclonal and monoclonalpreparations, as well as, the following: hybrid (chimeric) antibodymolecules (see, for example, Winter et al. (1991) Nature 349:293-299;and U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567); F(ab′)2 and F(ab) fragments; Fv molecules(non-covalent heterodimers, see, for example, Inbar et al. (1972) ProcNatl Acad Sci USA 69:2659-2662; and Ehrlich et al. (1980) Biochem19:4091-4096); single-chain Fv molecules (sFv) (see, for example, Hustonet al. (1988) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 85:5879-5883); dimeric and trimericantibody fragment constructs; minibodies (see, e.g., Pack et al. (1992)Biochem 31:1579-1584; Cumber et al. (1992) J Immunology 149B:120-126);humanized antibody molecules (see, for example, Riechmann et al. (1988)Nature 332:323-327; Verhoeyan et al. (1988) Science 239:1534-1536; andU.K. Patent Publication No. GB 2,276,169, published 21 Sep. 1994); and,any functional fragments obtained from such molecules, wherein suchfragments retain immunological binding properties of the parent antibodymolecule.

The mutated constructs of the present invention can have reducedimmunoreactivity as determined using in vitro and/or in vivo assaysusing any of the above types of antibodies that have been generatedagainst the corresponding wild-type AAV construct. Preferably, themutated AAV construct will react with such antibodies at a level atleast 1.5 times lower than the corresponding wild-type construct,preferably at a level at least 2 times lower, such as at least 5-10times lower, even at a level at least 50-100 times or at least 1000times lower than the corresponding wild-type construct.

Preferably, the mutated AAV construct reacts at a reduced level withanti-AAV neutralizing antibodies. For example, the mutated constructswill preferably be at least 1.5 times more neutralization-resistant thanthe corresponding wild-type, preferably at least 2 times moreneutralization-resistant, even more preferably at least 5-10 times ormore, such as at least 50-100 times or more neutralization-resistantthan the corresponding wild-type, as determined using standard assays,such as the in vitro neutralization assays described herein

The terms “subject”, “individual” or “patient” are used interchangeablyherein and refer to a vertebrate, preferably a mammal. Mammals include,but are not limited to, murines, rodents, simians, humans, farm animals,sport animals and pets.

The terms “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” of acomposition or agent, as provided herein, refer to a nontoxic butsufficient amount of the composition or agent to provide the desiredresponse. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject,depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, theseverity of the condition being treated, and the particularmacromolecule of interest, mode of administration, and the like. Anappropriate “effective” amount in any individual case may be determinedby one of ordinary skill in the art using routine experimentation.

“Treating” or “treatment” of a disease includes: (1) preventing thedisease, i.e. causing the clinical symptoms of the disease not todevelop in a subject that may be exposed to or predisposed to thedisease but does not yet experience or display symptoms of the disease,(2) inhibiting the disease, i.e., arresting the development of thedisease or its clinical symptoms, or (3) relieving the disease, i.e.,causing regression of the disease or its clinical symptoms.

2. MODES OF CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

Before describing the present invention in detail, it is to beunderstood that this invention is not limited to particular formulationsor process parameters as such may, of course, vary. It is also to beunderstood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose ofdescribing particular embodiments of the invention only, and is notintended to be limiting.

Although a number of methods and materials similar or equivalent tothose described herein can be used in the practice of the presentinvention, the preferred materials and methods are described herein.

Central to the present invention is the discovery of novel mutant AAVsequences useful in the production of rAAV virions that display reducedimmunoreactivity as compared to the corresponding wild-type virions.Furthermore, the mutants preferably retain other properties of thecorresponding wild-type, such as DNA packaging, receptor binding,chromatographic purification, and the ability to transduce cells invitro and in vivo. Preferably, such properties are within at least 1-10%of the values measured for the corresponding AAV wild-type. Morepreferably such properties are within 10-100% of the values measured forthe corresponding AAV wild-type. Most preferably such properties are atleast 100% or more of the values measured for the corresponding AAVwild-type. Thus, for example, if the mutation is in an AAV-2 capsidsequence, the comparison of these attributes would be between an AAV-2virion with the mutated capsid sequence versus an AAV-2 virion with thesame components as the mutated virion except with the AAV-2 wild-typecapsid protein sequence.

As explained above, the AAV mutants of the subject invention preferablydisplay decreased immunoreactivity relative to neutralizing antibodiesthat may be present in the host to which the mutant virions areadministered. In this way, cells and tissues of subjects that haveeither been naturally infected with AAV (i.e., due to previous naturalinfection) or artificially infected with AAV (i.e., due to previous genetherapy or nucleic acid immunization) may be more efficientlytransfected with recombinant AAV virions in order to treat or preventnew or on-going disease.

A well-studied mechanism for neutralization is that a neutralizingantibody physically blocks a region on the virus required to bind toreceptors that are required for infection. Previous studies with otherviruses have shown that the receptors and neutralizing antibodies bindto a distinct set of amino acids and that it is possible to identifymutants at particular positions on viral capsids that affect the bindingof neutralizing antibodies, but not receptors or other functions neededfor viral infection. Experiments in which wild-type replicating virusesare selected to be resistant to neutralizing antibodies have shown thatmutations, even in single amino acids, such as those described here, canresult in significant increases in resistance to antibodyneutralization.

The ability or inability of an AAV mutant virion to bind AAV antisera ispartially a function of the sequence of the capsid proteins (encoded byAAV cap gene). Thus, the invention contemplates single, double, triple,quadruple and more amino acid changes made on the surface of the AAVvirion, as well as deletions and/or insertions, in order to decreaseimmunoreactivity, e.g., to alter the ability of the AAV virion to bindAAV antisera. Such mutants may be assessed for resistance toneutralization and, if necessary, more drastic or multiple changes canbe made.

Methods of identifying portions of the AAV virion amenable to mutationwith a resulting functional rAAV virion are described in the examplesbelow. As detailed therein, mutations to amino acids on the viralsurface, such as mutations to protruding features of the capsid,including portions of the capsid known as the “spike,” “cylinder” and“plateau” are preferred. Mutations are preferably to the VP2 region,more preferably to the VP3 region, and in particular, within the regionof overlap between VP1, VP2 and VP3 as shown in FIG. 11. Particularlypreferred mutations are found within positions 80-598 of VP2(corresponding to amino acids 217-735 of VP1 and amino acids 15-533 ofVP3).

The sequence of a representative VP2 is shown in FIG. 9 herein (SEQ IDNO:12). The major coat protein, VP3 spans amino acids 203-735 of VP1.The mutation comprises at least one amino acid substitution, deletion orinsertion to the native protein. Representative mutations include one ormore substitutions of the amino acids occurring at a positioncorresponding to a position of the AAV-2 VP2 capsid protein selectedfrom the group consisting of amino acids 126, 127, 128, 130, 132, 134,247, 248, 315, 334, 354, 357, 360, 361, 365, 372, 375, 377, 390, 393,394, 395, 396, 407, 411, 413, 418, 437, 449, 450, 568, 569, and 571.

Generally, the naturally occurring amino acid is substituted with anamino acid that has a small side-chain and/or is uncharged and istherefore less immunogenic. Such amino acids include, withoutlimitation, alanine, valine, glycine, serine, cysteine, proline, as wellas analogs thereof, with alanine preferred. Moreover, additionalmutations can be present. Representative combinations include anycombination of the amino acids identified immediately above, such as butnot limited to a mutation of amino acid 360 to histidine and amino acid361 to alanine; amino acid 334 to alanine and amino acid 449 to alanine;amino acid 334 to alanine and amino acid 568 to alanine, amino acid 568to alanine and amino acid 571 to alanine; amino acid 334 to alanine,amino acid 449 to alanine and amino acid 568 to alanine; amino acid 571to lysine and any of the amino acids specified above. The abovecombinations are merely illustrative and of course numerous othercombinations are readily determined based on the information providedherein.

As described further in the examples, certain amino acids in the capsidare adjacent to the heparin-binding site. This region is termed the“dead zone” or “DZ” herein and includes amino acids G128, N131, D132,H134, N245, N246, D356, D357, H372, G375, D391, D392, E393 and E394.Amino acids in the dead zone are important for function of AAV and arethus also targets for the binding of neutralizing antibodies. As thisregion is important for AAV function, conservative amino acidsubstitutions, such as Q for H, D for E, E or N for D, and the like, arepreferred in the dead zone region and result in a more functional deadzone mutant.

The various amino acid positions occurring in the capsid protein arenumbered herein with reference to the AAV-2 VP2 sequence described inNCBI Accession No. AF043303 and shown in FIG. 9 herein. FIG. 10 showsthe amino acid sequence of AAV-2 VP1. However, it is to be understoodthat mutations of amino acids occurring at corresponding positions inany of the AAV serotypes are encompassed by the present invention. Thesequences for the capsid from various AAV serotypes isolated frommultiple species are known and described in, e.g., Gao et al. (2002)Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99:11854-11859; Rutledge et al. (1998) J.Virol. 72:309-319; NCBI Accession Nos. NC001863; NC004828; NC001862;NC002077; NC001829; NC001729; U89790; U48704; AF369963; AF028705;AF028705; AF028704; AF513852; AF513851; AF063497; AF085716; AF43303;Y18065; AY186198; AY243026; AY243025; AY243024; AY243023; AY243022;AY243021; AY243020; AY243019; AY243018; AY243017; AY243016; AY243015;AY243014; AY243013; AY243012; AY243011; AY243010; AY243009; AY243008;AY243007; AY243006; AY243005; AY243004; AY243003; AY243002; AY243001;AY243000; AY242999; AY242998; and AY242997, all of which areincorporated herein in their entireties.

Moreover, the inventors herein have discovered a new caprine AAV,isolated from goat, termed “AAV-G1” herein. The caprine AAV VP1 sequenceis highly homologous to the VP1 sequence of AAV-5, but is approximately100 times more resistant to neutralization by existing AAV antibodiesthan the native AAV-5 sequence. More particularly, a 2805 bp PCRfragment of the caprine AAV described herein, encoding 603 bp of rep,the central intron, and all of cap, shows 94% homology to thecorresponding AAV-5 sequence. The DNA and protein homologies for thepartial rep are 98% and 99%, respectively. A comparison of the caprineVP1 coding sequence with a primate AAV-5 VP1 coding sequence is shown inFIGS. 12A-12B. The DNA for the cap region of the caprine AAV is 93%homologous to that of AAV-5. The amino acid sequences for the caprineVP1 versus a primate AAV-5 is shown in FIG. 13. The caprine sequenceencodes a VP1 protein of 726 amino acids, while AAV-5 VP1 is 724 aminoacids in length. Additionally, the sequences display 94% sequenceidentity and 96% sequence similarity. There are 43 amino aciddifferences between the caprine and the primate AAV-5 VP1 sequence. Withrespect to the linear amino acid sequence of VP1, the distribution ofthe amino acid differences between AAV-5 and caprine AAV is highlypolar. All of the amino acid differences occur exclusively in theC-terminal hypervariable region of VP1 in a scattered fashion. Thisregion relative to AAV-5 and caprine includes approximately 348 aminoacids from amino acid 386 to the C-terminus, numbered relative to AAV-5VP1. The corresponding hypervariable regions in other AAV serotypes arereadily identifiable and the region from a number of AAV serotypes isshown in the figures herein.

Without being bound by a particular theory, the fact that all of theamino acid differences in VP1 of AAV-5 and caprine AAV occur in regionsthat are probably surface exposed, implies that capsid evolution isbeing driven primarily by the humoral immune system of the new hostand/or by adaptation to ruminant receptors.

A comparison of the VP1 sequence from caprine AAV with a number of otherprimate VP1 sequences, including AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3B, AAV-4, AAV-6,AAV-8 and AAV-5, is shown in FIGS. 14A-14H. The accessibility of thevarious amino acid positions based on the crystal structure is alsoshown in the figures. Moreover, the surface features of the amino acids,the location of single mutations that decrease binding andneutralization; the heparin binding sites; possible Mg2+ contact; thephospholipase A2 domain; as well as positions likely for base contactand DNA binding, possible phosphate and ribose contact are also shown.As can be seen in the figure, AAV-5 and caprine AAV are identical toeach other at 17 positions that differ in both AAV-2 and AAV-8.

Similarly, the inventors herein have discovered a new bovine AAV,isolated from cow, termed “AAV-C1” herein. The AAV-C1 VP1 nucleotide andamino acid sequences are shown in FIGS. 20A and 20B, respectively. FIGS.21A-21H show a comparison of the amino acid sequence of VP1 from AAV-C1with primate AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3B, AAV-4, AAV-6, AAV-8, AAV-5 andcaprine AAV (AAV-G1). The accessibility of the various amino acidpositions based on the crystal structure is also shown in the figures.Moreover, the surface features of the amino acids, the location ofsingle mutations that decrease binding and neutralization; the heparinbinding sites; possible Mg2+ contact; the phospholipase A2 domain; aswell as positions likely for base contact and DNA binding, possiblephosphate and ribose contact are also shown.

As can be seen in the figure, VP1 from AAV-C1 shows approximately 76%identity with AAV-4. The sequence differences between AAV-4 and AAV-C1are scattered throughout the capsid. AAV-C1 VP1 displays approximately54% identity with AAV-5 VP1, with high homology in the Rep protein, thefirst 137 amino acids of AAV-5 VP1 and the non translated region afterthe stop of AAV-5 VP1 (not shown). Thus, AAV-C1 appears to be a naturalhybrid between AAV-5 and AAV-4. AAV-C1 also displayed approximately 58%sequence identity with VP1s from AAV-2 and AAV-8, approximately 59%sequence identity with VP1s from AAV-1 and AAV-6, and approximately 60%sequence identity with VP1 from AAV-3B.

As described in more detail in the examples, the bovine AAV isapproximately 16 times more resistant to neutralization by existing AAVantibodies than the native AAV-2 sequence. Thus, the caprine and bovinesequences, and other such non-primate mammalian sequences, can be usedto produce recombinant AAV virions with decreased immunoreactivityrelative to primate AAV sequences, such as relative to AAV-2 and AAV-5.Additionally, regions of AAV capsids that can be mutated to provide AAVvirions with reduced immunoreactivity from non-caprine and non-bovineAAV isolates and strains, such as any of the AAV serotypes, can bereasonably predicted based on the caprine and bovine AAV sequencesprovided herein and a comparison of these sequences and immunoreactiveproperties with those of other isolates and serotypes.

Based on the above discussion, and the examples provided herein, one ofskill in the art can reasonably predict mutations that can be made towild-type AAV sequences in order to generate AAV virions with decreasedimmunoreactivity. Amino acid changes to amino acids found on the AAVcapsid surface, and especially those in the hypervariable region, areexpected to provide AAV virions with decreased immunoreactivity.Moreover, based on the knowledge provided by the caprine and bovine AAVsequences, other non-primate mammalian AAVs can be identified to providenon-mutated AAV sequences for use in preparing recombinant AAV virionswith decreased immunoreactivity relative to primate AAVs, such as AAV-2and AAV-5. For example, as shown in the examples below, positions inAAV-2 mutants that correlate to neutralization resistance and that arein common between the AAV-2 mutants and caprine AAV include changes topositions 248, 354, 360, 390, 407, 413 and 449 of AAV-2.

The AAV mutants of the present invention can be generated bysite-directed mutagenesis of the AAV cap gene region. The mutated capregion can then be cloned into a suitable helper function vector, andrAAV virions generated using the mutated helper function vector and anysuitable transfection method, including the triple transfection methoddescribed herein. Mutants suitable for use with the present inventionare identified by their reduced immunoreactivity, as defined above.Preferably, the mutants of the present invention have a reduced abilityto be neutralized by anti-AAV antisera, preferably anti-AAV-2 antisera,while maintaining other biological functions such as the ability toassemble intact virions, package viral DNA, bind cellular receptors, andtransduce cells.

Thus, the present invention involves the identification and use ofmutated AAV sequences, as well as wild-type non-primate mammalian AAVsequences, displaying decreased immunoreactivity for incorporation intorAAV virions. Such rAAV virions can be used to deliver a “heterologousnucleic acid” (an “HNA”) to a vertebrate subject, such as a mammal. Asexplained above, a “recombinant AAV virion” or “rAAV virion” is aninfectious virus composed of an AAV protein shell (i.e., a capsid)encapsulating a “recombinant AAV (rAAV) vector,” the rAAV vectorcomprising the HNA and one or more AAV inverted terminal repeats (ITRs).AAV vectors can be constructed using recombinant techniques that areknown in the art and include one or more HNAs flanked by functionalITRs. The ITRs of the rAAV vector need not be the wild-type nucleotidesequences, and may be altered, e.g., by the insertion, deletion, orsubstitution of nucleotides, so long as the sequences provide for properfunction, i.e., rescue, replication, and packaging of the AAV genome.

Recombinant AAV virions may be produced using a variety of techniquesknown in the art, including the triple transfection method (described indetail in U.S. Pat. No. 6,001,650, the entirety of which is incorporatedherein by reference). This system involves the use of three vectors forrAAV virion production, including an AAV helper function vector, anaccessory function vector, and a rAAV vector that contains the HNA. Oneof skill in the art will appreciate, however, that the nucleic acidsequences encoded by these vectors can be provided on two or morevectors in various combinations. As used herein, the term “vector”includes any genetic element, such as a plasmid, phage, transposon,cosmid, chromosome, artificial chromosome, virus, virion, etc., which iscapable of replication when associated with the proper control elementsand which can transfer gene sequences between cells. Thus, the termincludes cloning and expression vehicles, as well as viral vectors.

The AAV helper function vector encodes the “AAV helper function”sequences (i.e., rep and cap), which function in trans for productiveAAV replication and encapsidation. Preferably, the AAV helper functionvector supports efficient AAV vector production without generating anydetectable wild-type AAV virions (i.e., AAV virions containingfunctional rep and cap genes). Examples of vectors suitable for use withthe present invention include pHLP19, described in U.S. Pat. No.6,001,650 and pRep6cap6 vector, described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,156,303,the entirety of both incorporated by reference herein.

The accessory function vector encodes nucleotide sequences for non-AAVderived viral and/or cellular functions upon which AAV is dependent forreplication (i.e., “accessory functions”). The accessory functionsinclude those functions required for AAV replication, including, withoutlimitation, those moieties involved in activation of AAV genetranscription, stage specific AAV mRNA splicing, AAV DNA replication,synthesis of cap expression products, and AAV capsid assembly.Viral-based accessory functions can be derived from any of the knownhelper viruses such as adenovirus, herpesvirus (other than herpessimplex virus type-1), and vaccinia virus. In a preferred embodiment,the accessory function plasmid pladeno5 is used (details regardingpladeno5 are described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,004,797, the entirety of whichis hereby incorporated by reference). This plasmid provides a completeset of adenovirus accessory functions for AAV vector production, butlacks the components necessary to form replication-competent adenovirus.

The rAAV vector containing the heterologous nucleic acid (HNA) may beconstructed using ITRs from any of the various AAV serotypes. The HNAcomprises nucleic acid sequences joined together that are otherwise notfound together in nature, this concept defining the term “heterologous.”To illustrate the point, an example of an HNA is a gene flanked bynucleotide sequences not found in association with that gene in nature.Another example of an HNA is a gene that itself is not found in nature(e.g., synthetic sequences having codons different from the nativegene). Allelic variation or naturally occurring mutational events do notgive rise to HNAs, as used herein. An HNA can comprise an anti-sense RNAmolecule, a ribozyme, or a gene encoding a polypeptide.

The HNA is operably linked to a heterologous promoter (constitutive,cell-specific, or inducible) such that the HNA is capable of beingexpressed in the patient's target cells under appropriate or desirableconditions. Numerous examples of constitutive, cell-specific, andinducible promoters are known in the art, and one of skill could readilyselect a promoter for a specific intended use, e.g., the selection ofthe muscle-specific skeletal α-actin promoter or the muscle-specificcreatine kinase promoter/enhancer for muscle cell-specific expression,the selection of the constitutive CMV promoter for strong levels ofcontinuous or near-continuous expression, or the selection of theinducible ecdysone promoter for induced expression. Induced expressionallows the skilled artisan to control the amount of protein that issynthesized. In this manner, it is possible to vary the concentration oftherapeutic product. Other examples of well known inducible promotersare: steroid promoters (e.g., estrogen and androgen promoters) andmetallothionein promoters.

The invention includes novel mutant virions comprising HNAs coding forone or more anti-sense RNA molecules, the rAAV virions preferablyadministered to one or more muscle cells or tissue of a mammal.Antisense RNA molecules suitable for use with the present invention incancer anti-sense therapy or treatment of viral diseases have beendescribed in the art. See, e.g., Han et al., (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. USA 88:4313-4317; Uhlmann et al., (1990) Chem. Rev. 90:543-584;Helene et al., (1990) Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1049:99-125; Agarawal etal., (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85:7079-7083; and Heikkila etal., (1987) Nature 328:445-449. The invention also encompasses thedelivery of ribozymes using the methods disclosed herein. For adiscussion of suitable ribozymes, see, e.g., Cech et al., (1992) J.Biol. Chem. 267:17479-17482 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,347.

The invention preferably encompasses mutant rAAV virions comprising HNAscoding for one or more polypeptides, the rAAV virions preferablyadministered to one or more cells or tissue of a mammal. Thus, theinvention embraces the delivery of HNAs encoding one or more peptides,polypeptides, or proteins, which are useful for the treatment orprevention of disease states in a mammalian subject. Such DNA andassociated disease states include, but are not limited to: DNA encodingglucose-6-phosphatase, associated with glycogen storage deficiency type1A; DNA encoding phosphoenolpyruvate-carboxykinase, associated withPepck deficiency; DNA encoding galactose-1 phosphate uridyl transferase,associated with galactosemia; DNA encoding phenylalanine hydroxylase,associated with phenylketonuria; DNA encoding branched chainalpha-ketoacid dehydrogenase, associated with Maple syrup urine disease;DNA encoding fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase, associated with tyrosinemiatype 1; DNA encoding methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, associated withmethylmalonic acidemia; DNA encoding medium chain acyl CoAdehydrogenase, associated with medium chain acetyl CoA deficiency; DNAencoding ornithine transcarbamylase, associated with ornithinetranscarbamylase deficiency; DNA encoding argininosuccinic acidsynthetase, associated with citrullinemia; DNA encoding low densitylipoprotein receptor protein, associated with familialhypercholesterolemia; DNA encoding UDP-glucouronosyltransferase,associated with Crigler-Najjar disease; DNA encoding adenosinedeaminase, associated with severe combined immunodeficiency disease; DNAencoding hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyl transferase, associatedwith Gout and Lesch-Nyan syndrome; DNA encoding biotinidase, associatedwith biotinidase deficiency; DNA encoding beta-glucocerebrosidase,associated with Gaucher disease; DNA encoding beta-glucuronidase,associated with Sly syndrome; DNA encoding peroxisome membrane protein70 kDa, associated with Zellweger syndrome; DNA encoding porphobilinogendeaminase, associated with acute intermittent porphyria; DNA encodingalpha-1 antitrypsin for treatment of alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency(emphysema); DNA encoding erythropoietin for treatment of anemia due tothalassemia or to renal failure; DNA encoding vascular endothelialgrowth factor, DNA encoding angiopoietin-1, and DNA encoding fibroblastgrowth factor for the treatment of ischemic diseases; DNA encodingthrombomodulin and tissue factor pathway inhibitor for the treatment ofoccluded blood vessels as seen in, for example, atherosclerosis,thrombosis, or embolisms; DNA encoding aromatic amino acid decarboxylase(AADC), and DNA encoding tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) for the treatment ofParkinson's disease; DNA encoding the beta adrenergic receptor, DNAencoding anti-sense to, or DNA encoding a mutant form of, phospholamban,DNA encoding the sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum adenosine triphosphatase-2(SERCA2), and DNA encoding the cardiac adenylyl cyclase for thetreatment of congestive heart failure; DNA encoding a tumor suppessorgene such as p53 for the treatment of various cancers; DNA encoding acytokine such as one of the various interleukins for the treatment ofinflammatory and immune disorders and cancers; DNA encoding dystrophinor minidystrophin and DNA encoding utrophin or miniutrophin for thetreatment of muscular dystrophies; and, DNA encoding insulin for thetreatment of diabetes.

The invention also includes novel mutant virions comprising a gene orgenes coding for blood coagulation proteins, which proteins may bedelivered, using the methods of the present invention, to the cells of amammal having hemophilia for the treatment of hemophilia. Thus, theinvention includes: delivery of the Factor IX gene to a mammal fortreatment of hemophilia B, delivery of the Factor VIII gene to a mammalfor treatment of hemophilia A, delivery of the Factor VII gene fortreatment of Factor VII deficiency, delivery of the Factor X gene fortreatment of Factor X deficiency, delivery of the Factor XI gene fortreatment of Factor XI deficiency, delivery of the Factor XIII gene fortreatment of Factor XIII deficiency, and, delivery of the Protein C genefor treatment of Protein C deficiency. Delivery of each of theabove-recited genes to the cells of a mammal is accomplished by firstgenerating a rAAV virion comprising the gene and then administering therAAV virion to the mammal. Thus, the invention includes rAAV virionscomprising genes encoding any one of Factor IX, Factor VIII, Factor X,Factor VII, Factor XI, Factor XIII or Protein C.

Delivery of the recombinant virions containing one or more HNAs to amammalian subject may be by intramuscular injection or by administrationinto the bloodstream of the mammalian subject. Administration into thebloodstream may be by injection into a vein, an artery, or any othervascular conduit the mutant virions into the bloodstream by way ofisolated limb perfusion, a technique well known in the surgical arts,the method essentially enabling the artisan to isolate a limb from thesystemic circulation prior to administration of the rAAV virions. Avariant of the isolated limb perfusion technique, described in U.S. Pat.No. 6,177,403 and herein incorporated by reference, can also be employedby the skilled artisan to administer the mutant virions into thevasculature of an isolated limb to potentially enhance transduction intomuscle cells or tissue. Moreover, for certain conditions, it may bedesirable to deliver the mutant virions to the CNS of a subject. By“CNS” is meant all cells and tissue of the brain and spinal cord of avertebrate. Thus, the term includes, but is not limited to, neuronalcells, glial cells, astrocytes, cereobrospinal fluid (CSF), interstitialspaces, bone, cartilage and the like. Recombinant AAV virions or cellstransduced in vitro may be delivered directly to the CNS or brain byinjection into, e.g., the ventricular region, as well as to the striatum(e.g., the caudate nucleus or putamen of the striatum), spinal cord andneuromuscular junction, or cerebellar lobule, with a needle, catheter orrelated device, using neurosurgical techniques known in the art, such asby stereotactic injection (see, e.g., Stein et al., J. Virol73:3424-3429, 1999; Davidson et al., PNAS 97:3428-3432, 2000; Davidsonet al., Nat. Genet. 3:219-223, 1993; and Alisky and Davidson, Hum. GeneTher. 11:2315-2329, 2000).

The dose of rAAV virions required to achieve a particular “therapeuticeffect,” e.g., the units of dose in vector genomes/per kilogram of bodyweight (vg/kg), will vary based on several factors including, but notlimited to: the route of rAAV virion administration, the level of gene(or anti-sense RNA or ribozyme) expression required to achieve atherapeutic effect, the specific disease or disorder being treated, ahost immune response to the rAAV virion, a host immune response to thegene (or anti-sense RNA or ribozyme) expression product, and thestability of the gene (or anti-sense RNA or ribozyme) product. One ofskill in the art can readily determine a rAAV virion dose range to treata patient having a particular disease or disorder based on theaforementioned factors, as well as other factors that are well known inthe art.

Generally speaking, by “therapeutic effect” is meant a level ofexpression of one or more HNAs sufficient to alter a component of adisease (or disorder) toward a desired outcome or clinical endpoint,such that a patient's disease or disorder shows clinical improvement,often reflected by the amelioration of a clinical sign or symptomrelating to the disease or disorder. Using hemophilia as a specificdisease example, a “therapeutic effect” for hemophilia is defined hereinas an increase in the blood-clotting efficiency of a mammal afflictedwith hemophilia, efficiency being determined, for example, by well knownendpoints or techniques such as employing assays to measure whole bloodclotting time or activated prothromboplastin time. Reductions in eitherwhole blood clotting time or activated prothromboplastin time areindications of an increase in blood-clotting efficiency. In severe casesof hemophilia, hemophiliacs having less than 1% of normal levels ofFactor VIII or Factor IX have a whole blood clotting time of greaterthan 60 minutes as compared to approximately 10 minutes fornon-hemophiliacs. Expression of 1% or greater of Factor VIII or FactorIX has been shown to reduce whole blood clotting time in animal modelsof hemophilia, so achieving a circulating Factor VIII or Factor IXplasma concentration of greater than 1% will likely achieve the desiredtherapeutic effect of an increase in blood-clotting efficiency.

The constructs of the present invention may alternatively be used todeliver an HNA to a host cell in order to elucidate its physiological orbiochemical function(s). The HNA can be either an endogenous gene orheterologous. Using either an ex vivo or in vivo approach, the skilledartisan can administer the mutant virions containing one or more HNAs ofunknown function to an experimental animal, express the HNA(s), andobserve any subsequent functional changes. Such changes can include:protein-protein interactions, alterations in biochemical pathways,alterations in the physiological functioning of cells, tissues, organs,or organ systems, and/or the stimulation or silencing of geneexpression.

Alternatively, the skilled artisan can of over-express a gene of knownor unknown function and examine its effects in vivo. Such genes can beeither endogenous to the experimental animal or heterologous in nature(i.e., a transgene).

By using the methods of the present invention, the skilled artisan canalso abolish or significantly reduce gene expression, thereby employinganother means of determining gene function. One method of accomplishingthis is by way of administering antisense RNA—containing rAAV virions toan experimental animal, expressing the antisense RNA molecule so thatthe targeted endogenous gene is “knocked out,” and then observing anysubsequent physiological or biochemical changes.

The methods of the present invention are compatible with otherwell-known technologies such as transgenic mice and knockout mice andcan be used to complement these technologies. One skilled in the art canreadily determine combinations of known technologies with the methods ofthe present invention to obtain useful information on gene function.

Once delivered, in many instances it is not enough to simply express theHNA; instead, it is often desirable to vary the levels of HNAexpression. Varying HNA expression levels, which varies the dose of theHNA expression product, is frequently useful in acquiring and/orrefining functional information on the HNA. This can be accomplished,for example by incorporating a heterologous inducible promoter into therAAV virion containing the HNA so that the HNA will be expressed onlywhen the promoter is induced. Some inducible promoters can also providethe capability for refining HNA expression levels; that is, varying theconcentration of inducer will fine-tune the concentration of HNAexpression product. This is sometimes more useful than having an“on-off” system (i.e., any amount of inducer will provide the same levelof HNA expression product, an “all or none” response). Numerous examplesof inducible promoters are known in the art including the ecdysonepromoter, steroid promoters (e.g., estrogen and androgen promoters) andmetallothionein promoters.

3. EXPERIMENTAL

Below are examples of specific embodiments for carrying out the presentinvention. The examples are offered for illustrative purposes only, andare not intended to limit the scope of the present invention in any way.

Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used(e.g., amounts, temperatures, etc.), but some experimental error anddeviation should, of course, be allowed for.

Example 1 Recombinant AAV-lacZ Mutant Virion Preparation and PropertiesThereof

Recombinant AAV-2 virions containing the β-galactosidase gene (rAAV-2lacZ) were prepared using a triple-transfection procedure described inU.S. Pat. No. 6,001,650, incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety. The complete cDNA sequence for β-gal is available underGenBank Accession No. NC 000913 REGION: complement (362455 . . .365529).

I. Vector Construction A. Mutant AAV Helper Function Vector

Based on the structure of AAV-2 (see, Xie et al. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.USA (2002) 99:10405-10410), 61 mutants were constructed byoligonuecleotide-directed, site-specific mutagenesis. The entire surfaceof AAV is composed of 60 identical asymmetrical structural unitsarranged in an icosahedral shape. This has two important implications.First, any single amino acid mutation that is made will be found at 60places on the virus all at the same position relative to other aminoacids within the asymmetrical structural unit. Second, by studying asingle asymmetrical structural unit one can understand the entiresurface of the virus.

AAV-2 structure was determined as follows. Coordinates for the monomericAAV-2 capsid protein (VP1 amino acids 217-735; VP2 amino acids 80-598)were obtained from the Protein Data Bank (identification number 1LP3).The structure was analyzed using Swiss PDB Viewer version 3.7, VectorNTI 3D-Mol version 8.0 (Invitrogen, Inc.), or Chime (MDL InformationSystems, Inc. Multimeric structures of the AAV-2 capsid were generatedusing the oligomer generator program on the Virus Particle Explorer(VIPER) website, using the coordinate transformation functions of SwissPDB viewer in conjunction with matrix coordinates in the PBD (1LP3)file, or downloaded from the protein quaternary structure database atthe European Bioinformatics Institute (filename=11p3). Possible antibodybinding sites on AAV-2 capsid multimers were analyzed by constructingthe asymmetric structural unit of AAV-2 capsid and then manually dockingan IgG structure (murine IgG2a monoclonal antibody; PDB ID number 11GT)to that structure or to other multimeric units of the AAV-2 capsid usingSwiss PDB Viewer. Distances, amino acid clashes, and contact areasbetween the IgG and the AAV-2 capsid could be assessed using theappropriate tools within the Swiss PDB Viewer program.

Several criteria were applied to select which amino acids out of a totalof about 145 external, surface-exposed amino acids (within each of the60 identical asymmetric structural units, see FIG. 1) to mutate.Mutations were made only in external “surface-exposed” amino acids,although it is possible for amino acids under the external surface or onthe internal surface to influence antibody binding. The amino acids thatwere mutated were those with side-chains predicted to be the mostaccessible to antibody binding. This included amino acids on protrudingfeatures of the capsid, known as the “spike”, “cylinder”, and “plateau.”Such protruding features are often targets for the binding ofneutralizing antibodies. Amino acids in areas that were not wide enoughto accommodate an antibody (“canyon”, “dimple”, center of 3-foldsymmetry axis, center of 5-fold symmetry axis) were not mutated.Furthermore the amino acid side-chain was selected based on an exposedarea of at least 20 Å², because decreases of 20 Å² or more in thecontact area between an antigen and an antibody (out of a total contactarea of approximately 600 Å² to 900 Å²) can have a measurable effect onantibody-antigen affinity and therefore on the neutralizing titer of theantibody. Amino acids selected were those with the side-chain (and notjust the peptide backbone) exposed. It was assumed that if only thepeptide backbone was exposed then an antibody that bound to such anamino acid may not be able to discriminate various amino acids well,since all amino acids have the same peptide backbone. Finally,relatively flat areas of protein antigens often interact with relativelyflat areas of antibodies so amino acids chosen for mutation were in arelatively flat area (side of spike, top of cylinder, top of plateau).Applying all of the above criteria to the approximately 145 capsid aminoacids located on the external surface of AAV-2 resulted in the selectionof 72 positions that would be most likely to affect the binding ofneutralizing antibodies when changed to other amino acids. The locationof these amino acids is indicated in FIG. 2 and listed in Tables 1, 4and 5.

Most of the 127 mutants (at 72 positions) that were made changed singleamino acids to alanine, using techniques known by those skilled in theart of molecular biology. Alanine was chosen because it has beendetermined that, of all mutations that could be made, alanine is theleast disruptive to protein structure. Also, since alanine only has amethyl side-chain, changing most other amino acids to alanine are likelyto disrupt antibody binding. That is, compared to other amino acids,alanine is less immunogenic because it lacks a side-chain thatsignificantly contributes to antigen/antibody contact areas and hence toantigen/antibody affinity. Note that the numbering that follows is basedon the AAV-2 VP2 sequence as depicted in FIG. 9. A few positions werechanged to an amino acid other than alanine. For example at position 356where there already is an alanine, an arginine was inserted. Arginine ispolar enough to remain on the AAV surface and large enough that it couldinterfere with binding of antibodies. There are five glycines that maybe accessible to antibodies. Glycines are often found where a peptidechain turns and thus can be a critical component of structure. Mutationof glycines can be problematic because of the possibility that structuremay be dramatically altered. Therefore each of the five glycines on theAAV-2 surface were considered on a case-by-case basis in order to decidewhat to change them to. G128 was changed to aspartate because glycine128 is found in AAV-1 through 6 except for AAV-5 where position 128 isan aspartic acid. G191 was changed to serine because glycine 191 isfound in AAV-1 through 6 except for AAV-5 where position 191 is aserine. G329 was changed to arginine because glycine 329 is found inAAV-1 through 6 except for AAV-4 where position 329 is an arginine. G375was changed to proline because glycine 375 is conserved in AAV-1 through6 and it was thought that proline might preserve a turn in the peptidechain found at that position. G449 was changed to alanine because,although it is serine or asparagine in other AAVs, it is between R448and R451 in AAV-2, which are critical for heparin binding andtransduction. Therefore position 449 was mutated to an amino acidclosest in size to glycine (i.e., alanine). In some cases double mutantswere isolated (S130A/N131A, N360H/S361A, S361A/N358K, S361A/S494P,S361A/R592K) in addition to the desired mutant. These were presumably aresult of polymerase errors introduced during the mutagenesis, but wereassayed like the other mutants.

AAV helper function vectors were constructed using pHLP19 (described inU.S. Pat. No. 6,001,650, incorporated herein by reference in itsentirety), 116 mutagenic oligodeoxynucleotides, and an in vitromutagenesis kit (Quik Change XL, Stratagene, San Diego, Calif.).Briefly, two complementary oligodeoxynucleotides that contain eachdesired mutant sequence and have a melting temperature between 74-83° C.(calculated using the equation: Tm=81.5+0.41 (% G+C)−(675/N)−% mismatch,where G is guanosine, C is cytosine, N is primer length in nucleotides)were mixed separately with pHLP19. Three cycles of PCR were done usingthe following conditions: denaturation was performed at 95° C. for 1min, annealing was performed at 60° C. for 1 min, and extension wasperformed at 68° C. for 1 min. Then the two separate reactions weremixed and subjected to 18 additional cycles of PCR using the followingconditions: denaturation was performed at 95° C. for 1 min, annealingwas performed at 60° C. for 1 min, and extension was performed at 68° C.for 15 min. The PCR products were digested with the Dpn I restrictionenzyme to destroy fully methylated or hemi-methylated (i.e., non-mutant)plasmids, and then transformed into the E. coli strain XL-10(Stratagene). One colony was picked from each mutagenesis reaction, 500ng of plasmid DNA were prepared, and subjected to DNA sequencing. Asubset of the mutagenic oligodeoxynucleotides were used as sequencingprimers to confirm the sequences of mutants. The entire capsid gene wassequenced in each case. Most mutants could be isolated in this manner.If a mutant was not isolated by the first round of DNA sequencing, 1-3more colonies were picked and 500 ng of plasmid DNA was prepared andsubjected to DNA sequencing.

B. pLadeno5 Accessory Function Vector

The accessory function vector pLadeno5 was constructed as follows. DNAfragments encoding the E2a, E4, and VA RNA regions isolated frompurified adenovirus serotype-2 DNA (obtained from Gibco/BRL) wereligated into a plasmid called pAmpscript. The pAmpscript plasmid wasassembled as follows. Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was used toeliminate a 623-bp region including the polylinker and alphacomplementation expression cassette from pBSII s/k+ (obtained fromStratagene), and replaced with an EcoRV site. The sequence of themutagenic oligo used on the oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis was5′-CCGCTACAGGGCGCGATATCAGCTCACTCAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1).

A polylinker (containing the following restriction sites: Barn HI; KpnI;SrfI; XbaI; ClaI; Bst1107I; SalI; PmeI; and NdeI) was synthesized andinserted into the EcoRV site created above such that the BamHI side ofthe linker was proximal to the fl origin in the modified plasmid toprovide the pAmpscript plasmid. The sequence of the polylinker was5′-GGATCCGGTACCGCCCGGGCTCTAGAATCGATGTATACGTCGACGTTTAA ACCATATG-3′ (SEQID NO:2).

DNA fragments comprising the adenovirus serotype-2 E2a and VA RNAsequences were cloned directly into pAmpscript. In particular, a 5962-bpSrfI-KpnI(partial) fragment containing the E2a region was cloned betweenthe SrfI and KpnI sites of pAmpscript. The 5962-bp fragment comprisesbase pairs 21,606-27,568 of the adenovirus serotype-2 genome. Thecomplete sequence of the adenovirus serotype-2 genome is accessibleunder GenBank No. 9626158.

The DNA comprising the adenovirus serotype-2 E4 sequences was modifiedbefore it was inserted into the pAmpscript polylinker. Specifically, PCRmutagenesis was used to replace the E4 proximal, adenoviral terminalrepeat with a SrfI site. The location of this SrfI site is equivalent tobase pairs 35,836-35,844 of the adenovirus serotype-2 genome. Thesequences of the oligonucleotides used in the mutagenesis were:5′-AGAGGCCCGGGCGTTTTAGGGCGGAGTAACTTGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and5′-ACATACCCGCAGGCGTAGAGAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4). A 3,192 bp E4 fragment,produced by cleaving the above-described modified E4 gene with SrfI andSpeI, was ligated between the SrfI and XbaI sites of pAmpscript whichalready contained the E2a and VA RNA sequences to result in the pLadeno5plasmid. The 3,192-bp fragment is equivalent to base pairs 32,644-35,836of the adenovirus serotype-2 genome.

C. rAAV-2 hF.IX Vector

The rAAV-2 hF.IX vector is an 11,442-bp plasmid containing thecytomegalovirus (CMV) immediate early promoter, exon 1 of hF.IX, a1.4-kb fragment of hF.IX intron 1, exons 2-8 of h.FIX, 227 bp of h.FIX3′ UTR, and the SV40 late polyadenylation sequence between the two AAV-2inverted terminal repeats (see, U.S. Pat. No. 6,093,392, hereinincorporated by reference). The 1.4-kb fragment of hF.IX intron 1consists of the 5′ end of intron 1 up to nucleotide 1098 and thesequence from nucleotide 5882 extending to the junction with exon 2. TheCMV immediate early promoter and the SV40 late polyadenylation signalsequences can be obtained from the published sequence of pCMV-Script®,which is available from the Stratagene catalog, Stratagene, La Jolla,Calif.

D. rAAV-2 lac Z VectorConstruction of the Recombinant AAV Plasmid pVmLacZ

1. A 4311 bp Xba I DNA fragment was excised from pSUB201 which containsAAV rep/cap sequences. The Xba I ends were reannealed with a 10 bp Not Isynthetic oligonucleotide (5′-AGCGGCCGCT-3′) (SEQ ID NO:5) to give aplasmid intermediate pUC/ITR-Not I that has both AAV ITR's (invertedterminal repeats) separated by 116 bp of residual AAV sequence and Not Ilinker DNA.

2. A 1319 bp Not I DNA fragment was excised from p1.1c containing CMVpromoter and hGH intron sequences. This DNA sequence was inserted intothe Not I site of pUC/ITR-Not I, to give the intermediate pSUB201N.

3. A 1668 bp Pvu II (5131-1493) ITR bound CMV expression cassette wasexcised from pSUB201N and inserted at the Pvu II site (position 12) ofpuree. 1a, to give the plasmid intermediate pWee.1b. The excision of the1668 bp PvuII fragment from pSUB201N removed 15 bp from the outside ofeach ITR, in the “A” palindromic region.

4. A 4737 bp Not I/Eco RV “AAVrep/cap” DNA sequence was excised frompGN1909 and the ends were rendered blunt by filling in the 3′ recessedends using Klenow DNA polymerase. Asc I linkers were ligated to bothends, followed by cloning this “pGN1909/AscI” DNA fragment into thebackbone of pWee.1b at an Asc I site (2703), to give the intermediatepWee1909 (8188 bp). This plasmid has the ITR-bound CMV expressioncassette with an AAV rep/cap gene backbone.

5. A 3246 bp Sma I/Dra I LacZ gene was excised from pCMV-beta and Asc Ilinkers were ligated to the blunt-ended fragment. This LacZ/Asc Ifragment was cloned into p1.1c between Bss HIT sites, to givep1.1cADHLacZ, that has the LacZ gene driven by the CMV promoter.

6. A 4387 bp Not I DNA fragment was excised from p1.1cADHLacZ, that hasthe LacZ gene driven by the CMV promoter. This fragment was insertedbetween the Not I sites of pWee1909, after removing a 1314b p “CMVpromoter/hGH intron” expression cassette. The resulting construct,pW1909ADHLacZ, has the β-galactosidase gene under the control of the CMVpromoter and bounded by ITRs. The backbone of the plasmid carries the“rep” and “cap” genes providing AAV helper functions and the β-lactamase(ampicillin) gene confers antibiotic resistance.

7. A 4772 bp Sse I DNA fragment containing a “CMV/LacZ” cassette wasexcised from pW1909ADHLacZ and inserted into the Sse I site of pUC19, togive Pre-pVLacZ. This construct still contains approximately 50 bp ofremnant 5′ and 3′ pSUB201 sequences internal to each ITR.

8. The remnant pSUB201 sequences were removed by excising a 2912 bp MscI “pUC/AITR” DNA fragment from Pre-pVLacZ, that also removesapproximately 35 bp of the “D” region of each ITR. A synthetic linker“145NA/NB” (5′-CCAACTCCATCACTAGGGGTTCCTGCGGCC-3′) (SEQ ID NO:6)containing an Msc I restriction site, the ITR “D” region and a Not Isite was used to clone in a 4384 bp Not I fragment from pW1909ADHLacZ,that has the “CMV/LacZ” expression cassette. The resulting plasmidpVLacZ, is has the β-galactosidase gene under the control of an alcoholdehydrogenase enhancer sequence and the CMV promoter, all bounded by AAVITRs.

9. pVLacZ was further modified by removing LacZ elements and polylinkersequence outside of the ITR bound LacZ expression cassette as follows. A534 bp Ehe I/Afl III LacZ/polylinker sequence was excised from pUC119,the ends were blunted using Klenow DNA polymerase and the plasmid wasligated to a Sse I linker (5′-CCTGCAGG-3′) (SEQ ID NO:7), to producepUC119/SseI. The “AAVLacZ” DNA sequence was removed from pVLacZ bycutting out a 4666 bp Sse I fragment. This SseI fragment was cloned intothe Sse I site of pUC119/SseI to generate pVmLacZ. pVmLacZ has the CMVpromoter/ADH enhancer/β-galactosidase gene bounded by AAV ITRs in apUC119-derived backbone that confers ampicillin resistance and has ahigh copy number origin of replication.

II. Triple Transfection Procedure

The various mutated AAV helper function vectors (described above), theaccessory function vector pLadeno5 (described in U.S. Pat. No.6,004,797, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), and therAAV2-lacZ vector, pVmLacZ (described above) were used to producerecombinant virions.

Briefly, human embryonic kidney cells type 293 (American Type CultureCollection, catalog number CRL-1573) were seeded in 10 cm tissueculture-treated sterile dishes at a density of 3×10⁶ cells per dish in10 mL of cell culture medium consisting of Dulbeco's modified Eagle'smedium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum and incubated in ahumidified environment at 37° C. in 5% CO₂. After overnight incubation,293 cells were approximately eighty-percent confluent. The 293 cellswere then transfected with DNA by the calcium phosphate precipitatemethod, a transfection method well known in the art. 10 μg of eachvector (mutated pHLP19, pLadeno5, and pVm lacZ.) were added to a 3-mLsterile, polystyrene snap cap tube using sterile pipette tips. 1.0 mL of300 mM CaCl₂ (JRH grade) was added to each tube and mixed by pipettingup and down. An equal volume of 2×HBS (274 mM NaCl, 10 mM KCl, 42 mMHEPES, 1.4 mM Na₂PO₄, 12 mM dextrose, pH 7.05, JRH grade) was added witha 2-mL pipette, and the solution was pipetted up and down three times.The DNA mixture was immediately added to the 293 cells, one drop at atime, evenly throughout the dish. The cells were then incubated in ahumidified environment at 37° C. in 5% CO₂ for six hours. A granularprecipitate was visible in the transfected cell cultures. After sixhours, the DNA mixture was removed from the cells, which were thenprovided with fresh cell culture medium without fetal calf serum andincubated for an additional 72 hours.

After 72 hours, the cells were lysed by 3 cycles of freezing on solidcarbon dioxide and thawing in a 37° C. water bath. Such freeze-thawlysates of the transfected cells were characterized with respect tototal capsid synthesis (by Western blotting), DNA packaging (by Q-PCR),heparin binding, in vitro transduction (on HeLa or HepG2 cells plusadenovirus-2 or etoposide), and neutralization by antibodies.

III. Properties of the Mutant Virions A. Capsid Synthesis Assay

Mutations in proteins can render them unstable and more susceptible thannormal to degradation by proteases. In order to determine the level ofcapsids made by the mutants described herein, western blotting of crudelysates was performed. One microliter of each crude lysate was denaturedby incubation in 20 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 0.1% SDS at 80° C. for 5 minutes.Proteins were fractionated by SDS-PAGE using 10% polyacrylamide gels(Invitrogen, Inc., Carlsbad, Calif.) and then detected by westernblotting as follows. The proteins were electrophoretically blotted(Xcell II blot module, Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) onto nylonmembranes (Hybond-P, Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.). Themembranes were probed with an anti-AAV antibody (monoclonal clone B1,Maine Biotechnology Services, Inc. Portland, Me.) at a dilution of 1:20and then with a sheep anti-mouse antibody coupled to horseradishperoxidase (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.) at a dilution of1:12000. The B1 antibody-binding proteins were detected using the ECLPlus western blotting detection system (Amersham Biosciences,Piscataway, N.J.). The membranes were exposed to x-ray film Biomax MS,Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.) for 1-5 minutes and the signals were quantifiedusing an Alphalmager 3300 (Alpha Innotech Corp., San Leandro, Calif.)

B. DNA Packaging Assay.

Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (Q-PCR) was used to assess DNApackaging by AAV-2 virions with mutant capsids. In this procedure thecrude lysate was digested with DNAse I prior to PCR amplification toremove any plasmid (used in transfection) that might result in a falsepositive signal. The crude lysates were diluted 100 fold (5 μl crudelysate plus 495 μl buffer) in 10 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 10 μg/ml yeast tRNA.An aliquot of the dilution (10 μl) was digested with 10 units DNAse I(Roche Molecular Biochemicals, Indianapolis, Ind.) in 25 mM Tris, pH8.0, 1 mM MgCl₂ at 37° C. for 60 minutes in a final volume of 50 μl. TheDNAse I was inactivated by heating at 95° C. for 30 minutes. Onemicroliter (20 μg) of Proteinase K (Roche Molecular Biochemicals,Indianapolis, Ind.) was added and incubated 55° C. for 30 minutes. TheProteinase K was inactivated by heating at 95° C. for 20 minutes. Atthis point, the sample was diluted in 10 mM Tris, pH 8.0, 10 μg/ml yeasttRNA if necessary. Ten microliters of DNAse 1 and proteinase K-treatedsample was added to 40 μl Q-PCR master mix, which consisted of:

4 μl H₂O

5 μl 9 μM lac Z primer #LZ-1883F (5′-TGCCACTCGCTTTAATGAT-3′, (SEQ IDNO:8) Operon, Inc., Alameda, Calif.)

5 μl 9 μM lac Z primer #LZ-1948R (5′-TCGCCGCACATCTGAACTT-3′, (SEQ IDNO:9) Operon, Inc., Alameda, Calif.)

1 μl 10 μM lacZ probe # LZ-1906T(5′-6FAM-AGCCTCCAGTACAGCGCGGCTGA-TAMRA-3′, (SEQ ID NO:10) AppliedBiosystems, Inc. Foster City, Calif.)

25 μl TaqMan Universal PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, Inc. FosterCity, Calif.)

Q-PCR amplification was done using an Applied Biosystems model 7000Sequence Detection System according to the following program. There weretwo initial incubations at 50° C. for 2 minutes and 95° C. for 10minutes to activate Taq polymerase and denature the DNA template,respectively. Then the DNA was amplified by incubation at 95° C. for 15sec, then 60° C. for 60 seconds for 40 cycles. A standard curve wasconstructed using 4-fold dilutions of linearized pVm lac Z ranging froma copy number of 61 to 1,000,000. The copy number of packaged rAAV-lacZgenomes in each sample was calculated from the C_(t) values obtainedfrom the Q-PCR using the Applied Biosystems Prism 7000 SequenceDetection System version 1.0 software.

C. Heparin-Binding Assay

Heparin binding of viruses in crude lysates was performed as follows.Twenty microliters of crude cell lysate containing AAV-2 virions withwild-type or mutant capsids were mixed with 25 μl of a 50% slurry ofheparin beads. The heparin beads (Ceramic Hyper-DM Hydrogel-Heparin,Biosepra, Cergy-Saint-Christophe, France) were 80 μm in diameter and had1000 Å pores to allow AAV (which is ˜300 Å in diamater) access to theheparin. The beads were washed thoroughly in phosphate-buffered salineprior to use. The beads and virions were incubated at 37° C. for 60minutes. The beads were pelleted. The supernatant containing unboundvirions was saved. The beads were washed 2 times with 500 μl PBS. Thesupernatants were combined and unbound capsid proteins were precipitatedwith trichloroacetic acid at a final concentration of 10%. Precipitatedproteins were denatured by incubation in 20 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 0.1% SDS at80° C. for 5 minutes. Virions bound to heparin beads were released byincubation of the beads in 20 mM Tris, pH 6.8, 0.1% SDS at 80° C. for 5minutes. All protein samples prepared in this manner were fractionatedby molecular weight by SDS-PAGE using 10% polyacrylamide gels(Invitrogen, Inc., Carlsbad, Calif.) and then detected by westernblotting as follows. The proteins were electrophoretically blotted ontonylon membranes (Hybond-P, Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.). Themembranes were probes with an anti-AAV antibody (monoclonal clone B1,Maine Biotechnology Services, Inc. Portland, Me.) at a dilution of 1:20and then with a sheep anti-mouse antibody coupled to horseradishperoxidase (Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.) at a dilution of1:12000. The B1 antibody-binding proteins were detected using the ECLPlus western blotting detection system (Amersham Biosciences,Piscataway, N.J.). The membranes were exposed to x-ray film Biomax MS,Kodak, Rochester, N.Y.) for 1-5 minutes and the signals were quantitatedusing an Alphalmager 3300 (Alpha Innotech Corp., San Leandro, Calif.)

D. In Vitro Transduction Assay.

HeLa cells (American Type Culture Collection, catalog # CCL-2) wereplated in 24-well dishes at 5e4 cells per well. Cells were grown for 24hr in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) (Gibco) supplemented with10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco) and penicillin-streptomycin (Gibco) at37° C. Ten-fold dilutions of crude lysates containing the control wildtype and mutant viruses were made in DME/10% FBS. The virus dilutionswere added to the cells along with wild type adenovirus-5 (American TypeCulture Collection, catalog # VR-5). The amount of adenovirus used was0.1 μl per well, which was titered previously and shown to maximallystimulate rAAV-2 lac Z transduction of HeLa cells. After 24 hours at 37°C. the cells were fixed using 2% formaldehyde and 0.2% glutaraldehydeand stained for β-galactosidase activity using 1 mg/ml (2.5 mM)5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl β-D galactopyranoside in PBS, 2 mM MgCl₂, 5mM potassium ferricyanide, 5 mM potassium ferrocyanide, pH 7.2. Afteranother 24 hours, the number of blue cells in four random microscopicfields were counted and averaged for each well. Instead of using HeLacells and adenovirus-5, HepG2 cells and 20 μM etoposide could also beused and similar results were obtained.

E. Antibody and Serum Neutralization Assays.

Hep G2 cells (American Type Culture Collection, catalog # HB-8065) wereplated in 24-well dishes at 1.5e5 cells per well. Cells were grown for24 hr in Minimum Essential Medium (Eagle's) (KMEM) (ATCC) supplementedwith 10% fetal bovine serum and penicillin-streptomycin at 37° C.Two-fold dilutions of the A20 antibody (Maine Biotechnology, Portland,Me.) were made using PBS. Wild-type and mutant virus was diluted bymixing 1 microliter of crude lysate of the viral preparation with 15microliters of KMEM/0.1% Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA). Samples ofKMEM/0.1% BSA and PBS were included as a negative controls. A total of16 μL of A20 dilution was mixed with 16 μL of virus and incubated at 37°C. for one hour. Ten microliters of virus/A20 mixture was added to eachof three wells of cells. After one hour incubation at 37° C., etoposide(20 mM stock solution in dimethyl sulfoxide, Calbiochem) was added toeach well at a final concentration of 20 μM. After 24 hours the cellswere fixed using 2% formaldehyde and 0.2% glutaraldehyde and stained forβ-galactosidase activity using 1 mg/ml (2.5 mM)5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl β-D galactopyranoside in PBS, 2 mM MgCl₂, 5mM potassium ferricyanide, 5 mM potassium ferrocyanide, pH 7.2. Afteranother 24 hours, the number of blue cells in four random microscopicfields were counted and averaged for each well. The neutralizing titerof an antibody is defined as the dilution of antibody at which there isa 50% reduction in the number of viral transduction events (i. e., bluecells) compared to transduction in the absence of antibody.Neutralization of mutants by human sera collected from hemophiliacs orto purified human IgG from >10,000 donors (Panglobulin, ZLB BioplasmaAG, Berne, Switzerland) was assayed in the same manner. For purifiedhuman IgG, a concentration of 10 mg/ml was considered to be equivalentto undiluted sera since the normal concentration of IgG in human seravaries from 5-13 mg/ml.

F. ELISAs.

(a) A20 ELISA:

An ELISA kit (American Research Products, Belmont, Mass.) that uses amonoclonal antibody (A20) to capture and detect AAV-2 was used toquantitate particle numbers. The kit was used according to themanufacturer's instructions. Optical density was measured in aSpectramax 340PC plate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.) at450 nm wavelength. The concentration of virus needed to result in a halfmaximal optical density reading was calculated and used to compare theresults from different samples.

(b) IgG/A20 ELISA:

Microtiter plates (96-well EIA/RIA flat bottom, high-bindingpolystyrene, Costar, Corning, N.Y.) were coated using 100 μl (10 μg)Panglobulin in 0.1 M sodium bicarbonate buffer, pH 9.2 for 16 hours at20° C. Plates were blocked with 200 μl PBS, 1% BSA, 0.05% Tween-20 for 1hour at 20° C. Increasing amounts of CsCl gradient-purified native ormutant AAV-2 ranging from 3.0⁸ to 1.0¹⁰ vector genomes per well wereadded and incubated for 16 hours at 20° C. Unbound virus was washed offusing 3-200 μl aliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20 buffer. A20-biotin fromthe AAV-2 ELISA kit was diluted 1:50, 100 μl was added per well, andincubated for 1 hours at 37° C. Unbound A20-biotin was washed off using3 200 μl aliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20 buffer. Then streptavidincoupled to horseradish peroxidase was diluted 1:20 and incubated for 1hours at 37° C. Unbound streptavidin-HRP was washed off using 3 200 μlaliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20 buffer. Horseradish peroxidase substrates(Immunopure TMB substrate kit Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) were added andincubated for 15 min at 20° C. The reaction was stopped with 100 μl 2Msulfuric acid and optical density was measured in a Spectramax 340PCplate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.) at 450 nmwavelength. The concentration of virus needed to result in a halfmaximal optical density reading was calculated and used to compare theresults from different samples.

(c) IgG ELISA:

Microtiter plates (96-well EIA/RIA flat bottom, high-bindingpolystyrene, Costar, Corning, N.Y.) were coated with increasing amountsof CsCl gradient-purified native or mutant AAV-2 ranging from 3.0⁸ to1.0¹⁰ vector genomes per well for 16 hours at 20° C. in 0.1 M sodiumbicarbonate buffer, pH 9.2 for 16 hours at 20° C. Plates were blockedwith 200 μl PBS, 1% BSA, 0.05% Tween-20 for 1 hour at 20° C. Unboundvirus was washed off using 3-200 μl aliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20buffer. Panglobulin was added and incubated for 1 hour at 37° C. UnboundPanglobulin was washed off using 3-200 μl aliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20buffer. Then donkey, anti-human IgG coupled to horseradish peroxidase(Amersham Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.) was added and incubated for 1hours at 37° C. Unbound secondary antibody was washed off using 3-200 μlaliquots of PBS, 0.1% Tween-20 buffer. Horseradish peroxidase substrates(Immunopure TMB substrate kit Pierce, Rockford, Ill.) were added andincubated for 15 min at 20° C. The reaction was stopped with 100 μl of2M sulfuric acid and optical density was measured in a Spectramax 340PCplate reader (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, Calif.) at 450 nmwavelength. The concentration of virus needed to result in a halfmaximal optical density reading was calculated and used to compare theresults from different samples.

The DNA packaging, heparin-binding, and transduction properties ofmutants described here are summarized in Table 1. The antibodyneutralization properties of some of the mutants described here aresummarized in Tables 2 and 3.

TABLE 1 Properties of AAV-2 capsid mutants. Capsid DNA Heparin Mutant ¹synthesis ² packaging ³ binding⁴ Transduction⁵ wild type 100 100 >95 100Q126A 65 67 >95 55 Q126A/S127L 78 4 >95 0.02 S127A 68 98 >95 53 G128D100 674 >95 0.02 Δ128ins1 77 777 >95 0.02 S130A/N131A 55 nt >95 0.02N131A 67 563 >95 0.005 D132A 75 23 >95 0.04 H134A 44 540 >95 2 Q188A 5516 >95 0.36 D190A 60 51 >95 95 G191S 108 18 >95 22 T193A 38 7 >95 6S247A 18 83 >95 24 Q248A 60 374 >95 280 S315A 101 122 >95 232 T317A 101111 >95 208 T318A 100 132 >95 224 Q320A 97 89 >95 68 R322A 100 560 >95106 G329R 43 21 >95 0.24 S331A 168 80 >95 158 D332A 85 474 >95 8 R334A169 601 >95 79 D335A 136 127 >95 38 T354A 132 301 >95 93 S355A 69353 >95 38 S355T 110 183 >95 88 A356R 85 18 25 13 D357A 39 166 >95 4N359A 24 365 >95 89 N360A 8 246 >95 33 N360H/S361A 145 472 >95 38 S361A81 608 >95 89 S361A/N358K 59 nt >95 0.45 S361A/S494P 87 nt 90 0.02S361A/R592K 108 nt 90 180 E362A 149 56 >95 12 W365A 195 60 >95 4 T366A151 8 >95 0.01 G375P 221 82 50 0.01 D377A 211 80 >95 20 K390A 155267 >95 189 D392A 98 48 >95 0.01 E393A 54 81 >95 2 E394A 29 108 >95 22K395A 34 2046 >95 14 F396A 178 nt >95 148 K407A 220 112 >95 32 E411A 90513 >95 20 T413A 233 34 >95 252 E418A 264 74 >95 37 K419A 81 806 >95 160E437A 239 94 >95 24 Q438A 28 101 >95 92 G449A 104 106 >95 196 N450A 217144 >95 207 Q452A 313 533 >95 473 N568A 439 412 >95 536 K569A 831333 >95 20 V571A 98 251 >95 142 ¹ Mutants are named as follows: Thefirst letter is the amino acid in wild type AAV-2 capsid, the number isthe position in capsid that was mutated (numbered according to the AAV-2VP2 sequence), and the last letter is the mutant amino acid. Δ128ins1has amino acid 128 deleted and the sequence DASNDNLSSQSD inserted in itsplace. ² As determined by western blotting of crude lysates. Expressedas a percentage of wild type capsid synthesis. ³ DNAse-resistant,vector-specific DNA, quantified by Q-PCR and expressed as a percentageof wild type, which was normalized to 100 %. Average of 2 experiments,each done in triplicate. nt, not tested. ³Heparin-binding, expressed asa percentage of wild type. Single determinations except for wild type,which is an average of three determinations, normalized to 100%.⁴Transduction on human 293 cells expressed as a percentage of wild type.Average of 2 experiments.

TABLE 2 Antibody neutralization properties of AAV-2 capsid mutants. FoldTransduction blue cells blue cells neutralization Serum¹ Mutant (% ofwt) (−serum) (+serum) % Neut. resistant HA2 wild type 100 13275 3 99.981.0 R334A 114 15102 146 99.04 42.7 N450A 89 11802 14 99.88 5.2 wild type100 25960 8 99.97 1.0 E394A 6 1593 6 99.64 11.2 T413A 21 5505 15 99.738.5 N360H/S361A 41 10691 7 99.94 2.0 HA151 wild type 100 11965 16 99.871.0 R334A 185 22125 459 97.93 15.8 E394A 16 1947 14 99.27 5.6 V571A 738732 39 99.56 3.4 G449A 218 26137 121 99.54 3.5 N568A 122 14632 36 99.751.9 N450A 95 11387 53 99.54 3.5 wild type 100 15989 13 99.92 1.0 E411A18 2876 13 99.54 5.7 N360H/S361A 100 15989 21 99.87 1.6 HA165 wild type100 22833 14 99.94 1.0 N360A 16 3717 9 99.75 4.0 R334A 74 16872 16299.04 15.3 E394A 11 2566 2 99.91 1.4 N568A 102 23246 30 99.87 2.1 N450A64 14514 26 99.82 2.9 N360H/S361A 49 9558 8 99.92 1.3 ¹Mutants wererapidly screened by comparing the number of transduced cells resultingfrom infection of HepG2 cells by rAAV-2 lac Z with mutant or wild typecapsids in the presence or absence of a monoclonal (A20) antibody at adilution of 1:80 or human polyclonal serum at a dilution of 1:100.

TABLE 3 Antibody titration properties of 4 antibodies against AAV-2capsid mutants. Fold decrease in neutralizing titer¹ Antibody²: Mutant ³A20 151 165 HA2 wild type 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Q126A 2.5 NR NR NR S127A 57.0NR NR NR S247A 2.8 NR NR NR Q248A 5.7 NR NR NR R334A NR 3.6 2.4 2.0N360H/S361A NR 2.2 1.2 1.3 E394A NR 2.1 1.2 1.9 N450A NR 1.7 1.6 1.3Predicted multiplicative 2415 29 6 11 resistance: ¹Titers weredetermined by using 2-fold dilutions of monoclonal antibody and fittingthe data to a four-parameter logistic curve using Sigma Plot graphingsoftware. Values reported in the table are the fold decrease in titer ofthe mutant relative to wild type capsid. NR, not resistant toneutralization by indicated antibody. ²A20 is a protein A-purifiedanti-AAV-2 mouse monoclonal antibody. Sera 151, 165, and HA2 are 3unpurified human sera. ³ Mutants are named as follows: The first letteris the amino acid in wild type AAV-2 capsid, the number is the positionin capsid that was mutated (numbered according to the AAV-2 VP2sequence), and the last letter is the mutant amino acid. Δ128ins1 hasamino acid 128 deleted and the sequence DASNDNLSSQSD (SEQ ID NO: 11)inserted in its place.

As can be seen, by changing single amino acids on the surface of AAV-232 mutants out of 61 were identified that had nearly normal propertieswith respect to capsid synthesis, DNA packaging, heparin binding, andtransduction of cells in vitro. Ten mutants were more resistant toneutralization by antibodies.

The mutants made capsid protein at a level between 5-fold lower to8-fold higher than wild type. They packaged DNA at a level between25-fold lower to 20-fold higher than wild type. With regard totransduction, 28 of the mutants transduced at least 50% as well as wildtype, 16 transduced 10-50% of wild type, 6 transduced 1-10% of wildtype, and 11 transduced less than 1% of wild type (Table 1). There wereno significant differences in transduction of human cervicalcarcinoma-derived HeLa cells or human liver-derived Hep G2 cells, orwhen either adenovirus or etoposide was used to enhance transduction.Several mutants reproducibly had up to 5-fold more transducing activitythan wild type (Table 1).

Most of the mutants with <1% transduction activity were clustered in asingle area, on one side of the (proposed) heparin-binding site (Table1, compare FIG. 4 with FIG. 5). Without being bound by a particulartheory, the mutations cover an area that may be a protein-binding site.The mutant that was most defective for transduction was N131A. Afunction for N131 has not been described, but it is conserved in 40 outof 42 known AAV subtypes.

Four mutations affected heparin binding more noticeably than the others(A356R, G375A, S361A/S494P, S361A/R592K). Each of these is near R347,R350, K390, R448 and R451, which have been previously identified asamino acids that are important for heparin binding (FIG. 5).

Forty five of the mutants (Q126A, S127A, D190A, G191S, S247A, Q248A,S315A, T317A, T318A, Q320A, R322A, S331A, D332A, R334A, D335A, T354A,S355A, S355T, A356R, D357A, N359A, N360A, N360H/S361A, S361A,S361A/R592K, E362A, D377A, K390A, E393A, E394A, K395A, F396A, K407A,E411A, T413A, E418A, K419A, E437A, Q438A, G449A, N450A, Q452A, N568A,K569A, V571A) with more than approximately 10% of the transductionactivity of wild-type AAV-2 capsid were screened for neutralization bythe murine A20 monoclonal antibody. Four mutants (Q126A, S127A, S247A,Q248A) were significantly more resistant to neutralization by A20 thanwas AAV2 with a wild type capsid (see Table 3). The titer of thesemutants (Q126A, S127A, S247A, Q248A) was 1:203, 1:9, 1:180 and 1:89,respectively (FIG. 8), which is 2.5, 57, 2.8, and 5.7-fold greater thanthe neutralizing titer of the A20 monoclonal antibody against wild typeAAV-2 capsid (1:509). These 4 mutants are located immediately adjacentto each other on the surface of the AAV-2 capsid (FIG. 6).

Three (Q126A, S127A, Q248A) of the four mutations that reduceneutralization by A20 were essentially normal with regard to capsidsynthesis, DNA packaging, heparin binding, and transduction. Capsidsynthesis and transduction by mutant S247A was 4- to 5-fold less thanwild-type AAV-2 capsid. Thus it is possible to have a virus that isnormal in several important properties but has increased resistance toantibody neutralization.

The mutant rAAV virions Q126A, S127A, S247A, Q248A yielded an unexpected2.5- to 57-fold resistance to neutralizing antibody while maintainingtransduction efficiency in 2 different human cell lines (HeLa andHepG2). These four amino acids are immediately adjacent to each other onthe surface of AAV-2 (FIG. 6). Furthermore, they are in an area that hadbeen previously implicated in binding the A20 antibody, based on peptidecompetition and insertional mutagenesis experiments. Based on theseobservations it is possible the A20 antibody blocks one or morefunctions necessary for AAV-2 to transduce cells. In a previous study ithas been shown that A20 does not block binding of AAV-2 to heparin(Wobus et al (2000) J. Virol. 74:9281-93). The results reported heresupport this data since mutations that affect heparin binding arelocated far from mutations that affect A20 binding. Although A20 doesnot block heparin binding, it does prevent AAV-2 from entering cells. Itis possible that A20 does not interfere with binding to a “dockingreceptor” such as heparin, but instead interferes with binding of AAV-2to an “entry receptor”. Two proteins have been described that arerequired for AAV-2 transduction which may be entry receptors: the basicfibroblast growth factor receptor (bFGF^(R)) and α_(v)β₅ integrin. Theareas on AAV-2 that these receptors may bind have not been identified.It is possible α_(v)β₅ integrin, bFGF^(R), or both may bind to thelocalized area described herein that has a high concentration of mutantsthat are significantly defective in transduction (<1% of normal). Notethat the area that is most defective for transduction is locatedadjacent to the mutants that affect A20 binding.

The same 45 mutants (Q126A, S127A, D190A, G191S, S247A, Q248A, S315A,T317A, T318A, Q320A, R322A, S331A, D332A, R334A, D335A, T354A, S355A,S355T, A356R, D357A, N359A, N360A, N360H/S361A, S361A, S361A/R592K,E362A, D377A, K390A, E393A, E394A, K395A, F396A, K407A, E411A, T413A,E418A, K419A, E437A, Q438A, G449A, N450A, Q452A, N568A, K569A, V571A)with more than approximately 10% of the transduction activity of wildtype AAV-2 capsid were screened for neutralization by 3 humanneutralizing antisera. Four mutants (R334A, N360H/S361A, E394A, N450A)were identified in an initial screen that were more resistant toneutralization by all three human antisera, than was AAV2 with awild-type capsid (see Table 2). The titer of antisera when tested onthese mutants ranged from 1.3 to 3.6-fold greater than the neutralizingtiter of the three human antisera against wild type AAV-2 capsid (Table3). Six other mutants (N360A, E411A, T413A, G449A, N568A, V571A) hadincreased levels of resistance to neutralization by 1 or 2 of the 3 seratested (Table 2).

The location of the mutations that confer antibody neutralizationresistance is informative. First, mutants that confer resistance to amouse monoclonal antibody are located immediately adjacent to each otheron the surface of the AAV-2 capsid whereas those that confer resistanceto human antisera are spread over a larger area (FIG. 7). This suggeststhe human antisera are polyclonal, which is not surprising. Second, bothsets of mutants are located on the plateau and spike but not on thecylinder, even though the cylinder would be readily accessible toantibody binding. Third, mutations that affect neutralization are nearareas important for AAV function. Several mutants that affectneutralization by human antisera (at positions 360, 394, 449, 450) arelocated within 2 amino acids of the heparin binding site, which islikely to be a functionally important target for binding by neutralizingantibodies. Other mutants (at positions 126, 127, 247, 248, 334, 568,571) are located at the periphery of the large region on the plateau(dead zone) that contains most of the mutants that had <10% of wild typetransduction activity (FIG. 4). Like the heparin-binding site, this areapresumably has an important function and is likely to be a functionallyimportant target for binding by neutralizing antibodies.

When multiple mutations that confer resistance to antibodyneutralization are combined the cumulative resistance to antibodyneutralization is often multiplicative, especially when the individualmutations result in low levels of resistance. Therefore, it is likelythat if the mutants described here are combined into one capsid, thosecapsids could be 5-fold to over 1000-fold more resistant toneutralization compared to a wild-type capsid (Table 3). Dilutions ofA20 greater than 1:1000 neutralize <3% of wild-type AAV-2. Thus a mutantwith a combination of the 4 single amino acids that provide someresistance to neutralization by A20 could be almost completely resistantto neutralization even by undiluted A20 antisera.

Although mutants with <10% wild type transduction activity may also beresistant to antibody neutralization they were not tested because theneutralization assay, as described here, works best when used to assaymutants that have >˜10% of wild-type transduction activity (FIG. 3).This is because it is desirable to be able to detect neutralization overa wide range of antibody concentrations so that a titer can beaccurately calculated. However, mutants with <10% wild-type transductionactivity could still be tested for their ability to bind neutralizingantibody using a modification of the assay described here in which atransduction defective mutant would be used as a competitor. For examplea wild-type “reporter” rAAV-2 lacZ virus could be mixed with atransduction defective “competititor” AAV-2 that lacks any genome(“empty virus”) or with an AAV-2 virus that has packaged another gene(e.g., green fluorescent protein). If a “competititor” AAV-2 protects areporter AAV-2 from neutralization then the “competititor” capsid shouldbe able to bind neutralizing antibody and thus would not be resistant toneutralization. If a “competititor” AAV-2 does not protect a reporterAAV-2 from neutralization then the “competititor” capsid may not be ableto bind neutralizing antibody and thus could be resistant toneutralization as long as it was shown to make a normal amount ofcapsid. In this way even mutants that are transduction defective butresistant to antibody neutralization could be identified. In order tomake such mutants useful as vehicles for delivering genes in thepresence of neutralizing antibodies, it would be desirable to find anamino acid substitution other than alanine that would restore normaltransducing activity, but still retain decreased susceptibility toneutralization.

66 more mutants were made and tested using the protocols describedabove. The DNA packaging, heparin-binding, and transduction propertiesof the additional mutants are summarized in Table 4.

TABLE 4 Properties of Additional AAV-2 capsid mutants. Capsid DNAHeparin Mutant synthesis ² packaging binding Transduction G128A +207 >95% 1.5 S130A + 172 >95% 92 S130T + 232 >95% 1164 N131Q + 113 >95%0.01 D132E + 202 >95% 4 D132N + 188 >95% 75 N133A + 187 >95% 418 H134F +180 >95% 0.2 H134Q + 340 >95% 17 H134T + 102 >95% 0.4 N245A + 145 >95%1.8 G246A + 353 >95% 0.6 R350K + 52 >95% 16 D357E + 222 >95% 427 D357N +157 >95% 28 D357Q + 204 >95% 1.6 N360H + 129 >95% 37 N360K + 59 >95%0.06 W365F + 253 >95% 6 T366S + 251 >95% 18 H372F + 130 >95% 4.1 H372K +154 >95% 72 H372N + 221 >95% 122 H372Q + 248 >95% 73 G375A + 55 >95% 2.4D391A + 140 >95% 1.21 D392E + 158 >95% 15 D392I + 411 >95% 0.5 D392N +236 >95% 0.2 D392V + 247 >95% 0.001 E393D + 218 >95% 80 E393K + 123 >95%0.02 E393Q + 92 >95% 1.2 E394K + 190 >95% 6.0 E411K + 28 >95% 4.6T413K + 196 >95% 57 R448A + 3255  <1% 0.3 R448K + 768 >95% 80 G449K +270 >95% 3.1 N450K + 281 >95% 0.7 R451A + 2971  <1% 0.07 R451K + 10 >95%133 N568K + 488 >95% 16 V571K + 614 >95% 40 R334A/N360K + 380 >95% 0.6R334A/G449A + 87 >95% 91 R334A/N450A + 738 >95% 238 R334A/N568A +150 >95% 147 N360K/N450A + 166 >95% 0.2 E411A/T413A + 548 >95% 74G449A/N450A + 94 >95% 111 G449A/N568A + 102 >95% 105 G449K/N568K +284 >95% 0.02 N568A/V571A + 139 >95% 59 R334A/N360K/ + 38 >95% 0.8 E394AR334A/N360K/ + 21 >95% 0.001 E394A ins2¹ R334A/N360K/ + 320 >95% 0.01G449K R334A/G449A/ + 746 >95% 424 N568A R334A/G449K/ + 50 >95% 2.0 N568KR347C/G449A/ + 102 50% 0.02 N450A R334A/N360K/ + 26 >95% 0.3 N450AR334A/N360K/ + 445 >95% 0.9 E394A/N450A R334A/N360K/ + 26 >95% 0.001G449K/N568K E411A/T413A/ + 372 >95% 74 G449A/N450A E411A/T413A/ +437 >95% 14 G449A/N450A/ N568A/V571A R334A/N360K/ + 152 >95% 0.006E394A/E411A/ T413A/G449A N450A/N568A/ V571A ¹ins2 is an insertion of thesequence HKDDEAKFFPQ after VP2 amino acid 399. ² + = within 10-fold ofwild type.

As shown in Table 4, several mutants were obtained with increasedtransduction as compared to wild-type capsids. For example, mutantsS130T, N133A, D357E, H372N, R451K, G449A/N450A, R334A/N450A,R334A/G449A/N568A, R334A/N568A, G449A/N568A displayed increasedtransduction. Mutant S130T was the best transducer, with approximately11 times over wild-type levels. This was remarkable because the onlydifference between S (serine) and T (threonine) is a CH₂ group. Also asseen in Table 4, combination mutants usually transduced at the samelevel as that of the single mutant with the lowest level oftransduction.

Certain amino acids in the capsid overlap the heparin-binding site. Thisregion is termed the “dead zone” or “DZ” herein. Mutations in the deadzone can result in capsids that still bind one of the AAV-2 receptors(e.g., heparin) but do not transduce cells. Amino acid substitutionswere made in dead zone amino acids and these substitutions were comparedto substitution of the same amino acid with alanine. Results are shownin Table 5.

TABLE 5 Effect of non-alanine substitutions in dead zone. Dead zoneTransduction position Substitution (% of wild type) G128 A 1.5 D 0.02N131 A 0.005 Q 0.01 D132 A 0.04 E 4 N 75 H134 A 2 F 0.2 Q 17 T 0.4 D357A 4 E 427 N 128 Q 1.6 H372 A 0.008 ^(a) F 4 K 72 N 122 Q 73 G375 A 2.4 P0.01 D392 A 0.01 E 15 I 0.5 N 0.2 V 0.001 E393 A 2 D 80 K 0.2 Q 1.2 ^(a)Data from Opie, S. R., et al., J. Virology 77, 6995-7006, (2003)

As shown above, the more conservative the substitution the morefunctional the dead zone mutant was. For example Q was a good substitutefor H. D was a good substitute for E. E or N were good substitutes forD. It was not a surprise that glycine, which has several uniqueproperties was difficult to substitute.

The heparin binding properties of mutant G375P (transduction 0.01% ofwild-type) and G375A (transduction 2.4% of wild-type) were compared.Mutant G375P bound heparin at 50% and G375A at 95%. Position 375 mightbe required for both dead zone and heparin binding site function.Substitution of glycine with alanine in the G375A mutant results in aphenotype that is the same as other dead zone mutants—it binds heparinnormally but displays <10% of normal transduction. However, substitutionof glycine with proline in the G375P mutant results in a phenotype moresimilar to a mutant defective in heparin binding (such asR347C/G449A/N450A). Without being bound by a particular theory, thedifferences in structure between glycine, alanine, and proline implythat the side chain of glycine may be required for dead zone function,since substitution with alanine reduces transduction. The amine groupmay be required for heparin binding since substitution with proline,which does not have an amine group, affects heparin binding.Alternatively proline substitution may disrupt the structure of theheparin binding site from a distance. There were three mutants (R448A,R451A, R347C/G449A/N450A) that didn't bind heparin, but these were inpositions previously known to be required for heparin binding (347, 448,451).

Neutralization activity of several of these mutants by murine monoclonalantibody (A20) and also by a purified, pooled human IgG was determined.The pooled human IgG preparation was used as it is well characterized,commercially available, highly purified, and it is believed to representnearly all antigen specificities that would be found in the UnitedStates which was the source of blood used to purify the IgG. Results areshown in Table 6.

TABLE 6 Neutralization by purified, pooled human IgG and murinemonoclonal antibody A20 Fold decrease in Fold decrease in Mutantneutralizing titer¹ A20 titer WT 1.0 S127A   2.2 * G128A   4.1 * S130A1.4 S130T 1.8 D132N   3.8 * N133A 0.9 H134Q 1.5 R334A   2.2 * T354A  2.9 * D357E 1.7 D357N 1.8 N360H/S361A   2.1 * W365A  10.4 * 0.5 H372K1.1 G375P 1.9 D377A 1.9 K390A   2.3 * E394A 1.5 E394K   2.3 * 0.9 K395A  4.9 * 0.9 F396A 1.6 K407A   3.3 * 1.6 E411A  2.7* T413K   2.6 * E418A1.5 E437A   2.0 *  0.8* Q438A 1.3 R448K 1.0 G449A   2.5 * N450A 1.6Q452A 1.3 N568A   2.0 * K569A   4.0 * 1.7 V571A   3.9 * 1.4 V571K 1.0217*   R334A/G449A   3.9 * R334A/N568A   2.4 * G449A/N568A 1.7N568A/V571A   2.5 * R334A/G449A/   3.0 * N568A E411A/T413A/ 1.0G449A/N450A E411A/T413A/ 1.3 G449A/N450A/ N568A/V571A ¹* = statisticallysignificant, p < 0.05. Titers were determined by doing 2-fold dilutionsof IgG. The data was plotted using Sigma Plot software and thereciprocal of the dilution at which 50% neutralization occurred isdefined as the titer.

As shown in the table, 21 mutants (S127A, G128A, D132N, R334A, T354A,N360H/S361A, W365A, K390A, E394K, K395A, K407A, T413K, E437A, G449A,N568A, K569A, V571A, R334A/G449A, R334A/N568A, N568A/V571A,R334A/G449A/N568A) were from 2-10 fold more resistant to neutralizationby a large pool of human IgG compared to native AAV-2 capsid. As wouldbe expected, some of the mutants that were resistant to neutralizationby pooled human IgG were also resistant to neutralization by individualhuman sera (e.g., R334A, N360H/S361A, G449A, N568A, V571A). Withoutbeing bound by a particular theory, epitopes that contain those aminoacids may bind antibody with high affinity or at high frequency.However, some mutants resistant to neutralization by pooled human IgGwere not identified as resistant to individual sera, possibly becauseepitopes that contain those amino acids are more rarely found in thehuman population. In addition, some mutants were resistant toneutralization by individual sera but not to pooled human IgG (e.g.,E394A, N450A). In these cases it is possible the antibodies that bind toepitopes that contain these amino acids are low affinity or lowabundance such that mutations that affect their binding are notdetectable in the context of a large complex mixture of IgG.

As can be seen in FIG. 7, these mutations are scattered at variouslocations across the surface of AAV-2. The size of the area they coveris 2-3 times the size of an average epitope, implying there may be atleast 2-3 epitopes involved in neutralization by the sum total of allhuman IgGs.

Combinations of single, neutralization resistance mutants sometimesresulted in a slightly higher degree of neutralization resistancecompared to the single mutants that comprised a multiple mutant. Howeverthe degree of the effect clearly is not multiplicative for these mutantsat these levels of neutralization resistance.

Two more mutants resistant to neutralization by the murine monoclonalantibody A20 were also identified: E411A which is 2.7-fold resistant andV571K which is 217-fold resistant to neutralization by A20. The V571Kmutant provides evidence for a concept termed by the present inventorsas “lysine scanning”. Rather than removing part of an antibody bindingsite by changing an amino acid with a large side chain to one with asmaller side chain such as alanine, the concept of lysine scanning is tosubstitute an amino acid that has a small side chain (e.g., V571) withlysine which has a large side chain. Rather than removing part of anantibody binding site as might be the case for alanine substitutions,the aim of lysine scanning is to insert larger amino acids that couldsterically interfere with antibody binding. Lysine was chosen since itis commonly found on the surface of AAV-2 and thus likely to be anaccepted substitution. However, other large amino acids such asarginine, trytophan, phenylalanine, tyrosine, or glutamine may alsoresult in a similar effect without compromising biological activity.Note that while V571A is not resistant to neutralization by the murineA20 antibody, V571K is 217 fold more resistant to neutralization by A20than is native V571 AAV-2 capsid.

V571K is located on the plateau, immediately adjacent to the four othermutants identified as resistant to A20 neutralization (Q126A, S127A,S247A, Q248A; Table 3). However E411A is located on the spike, albeitclose enough to Q126A, S127A, S247A, Q248A and V571K to be within thesame epitope. Inclusion of E411 in the A20 epitope evidences that A20may bind to both the plateau and the spike, i.e. across the canyon.Molecular modeling suggests that one of AAV-2 receptors, the basic FGFreceptor (PDB ID: 1FQ9), could fit very well in the AAV-2 canyon (in amanner and location remarkably similar to the way the transferrinreceptor is thought to bind to canine parvovirus). If the basic FGFreceptor binds to the AAV-2 canyon, then binding of A20 across thecanyon would block binding of the basic FGF receptor and explain theobservation that A20 neutralizes AAV-2 by blocking entry, a step intransduction that the basic FGF receptor is likely to mediate.

The plateau and spike area may bind antibodies that neutralize otherAAVs by preventing receptor binding. For example AAV-5 has been shown torequire the PDGF receptor for entry into cells (Di Pasquale et al.,Nature Medicine (2003) 9:1306-1312). Although the structure of the PDGFreceptor is not known, it is homologous in amino acid sequence to thebasic FGF receptor. For example, both are composed of similar repetitiveIg-like sequence domains and thus would be expected to have similar3-dimensional structures. Thus, it is possible that the PDGF receptormay bind to the AAV-5 canyon.

V571A, but not V571K is resistant to neutralization by pooled human IgG.Conversely V571K, but not V571A is resistant to neutralization by murinemonoclonal A20. It is possible that antibodies in the human IgG poolbind directly to V571. Substitution of the valine side chain for thesmaller alanine side chain may result in less binding by human IgG. Thelysine side chain may still provide enough hydrophobic contacts to allowbinding to occur, but not be so large as to prevent binding. A20 may notbind directly to V571 (explaining the absence of an effect of the V571Amutant on binding or neutralization by A20). However A20 clearly bindsin the vicinity of V571. It is possible that V571K indirectly interfereswith A20 binding, for example by steric interference.

An IgG ELISA was also done. There are many potential mechanisms ofneutralization, especially in vivo. Binding of an IgG to AAV in a regionthat is not required for the function of AAV could still lead toreduction of the ability of AAV to deliver genes. For example, theprimary function of macrophages is to bind foreign organisms that arebound to antibodies. When an antibody-bound organism is bound to amacrophage (via Fc receptors) the foreign organism is engulfed anddestroyed. Another potential route that antibodies could use in order toneutralize AAV is by cross-linking. Antibodies are bivalent and AAVwould likely have 60 antibody binding sites per epitope (and possiblymultiple epitopes). Thus, as is well documented in the scientificliterature, at certain antibody and virus concentrations, a cross-linkednetwork of AAVs and antibodies can form. Such immune complexes canbecome so large that they precipitate or become lodged in thevasculature prior to reaching a target organ. For this reason,antibodies that bind AAV in vivo, on areas of AAV that are notfunctionally significant, can result in reduced transduction as much asantibodies that do bind to functionally significant areas. Results areshown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 IgG ELISA Fold decrease in binding Fold decrease in bindingMutant of human IgG of murine A20 Wild type 1 1 S130A 1 1 S130T 1 1D132N 1 1 H134Q 1 1 G246A 1 1 R334A 1 1 D357E 1 1 N360H 1 1 H372K 1 1H372Q 1 1 E393D 1 1 T413K 1 1 G449A 1 1 N568K 1 1 N568A 1 1 V571K 10 10E411A, T413A 1 1 N568A, N571A 1 1 E411A, T413A, 1 1 G449A, N450A R334A,G449A, 1 1 N568A R334A, G449A 1 1 R334A, N568A 1 1 G449A, N568A 1 1

As shown in Table 7, one mutant (V571K) was identified that bound bothA20 and a pool of human IgG 10 times worse than native AAV-2. In theall-A20 ELISA binding of mutant V571K was reduced 10-fold. In anall-human IgG ELISA binding of mutant V571K was reduced 10-fold. When anA20/IgG sandwich ELISA format was used, binding of mutant V571K wasreduced 100-fold. Position (571) is immediately adjacent to positions126, 127, 247 and 248 on the surface of the AAV-2 capsid. Positions 126,127, 247 and 248 were identified as important for neutralization by themouse monoclonal antibody A20. Therefore this region may be antigenic inboth mice and humans.

To summarize, several mutations to the external surface of AAV-2 capsidthat reduced neutralization by antibodies, but had minimal effects onbiological properties were identified. In particular, 127 mutations weremade at 72 positions (55% of surface area) deemed most likely to beaccessible to antibody binding based on manual docking of IgG and AAV-2structures. Single alanine substitutions (57), single non-alaninesubstitutions (41), multiple mutations (27), and insertions (2) weremade. All mutants made capsid proteins and packaged DNA at levels within10-fold of wild type. All mutants bound heparin as well as wild-type,except for six which were close to or within the heparin binding site.42 of 98 single mutants transduced at least as well as wild-type.Several mutants had increased transducing activity. One, an S to Tmutant, had 11-fold greater transducing activity than wild type.Combination (up or down) mutants usually transduced at the same level asthat of the single mutants with the lowest level of transduction.

13 of 15 single alanine substitution mutants with <10% transductionactivity were adjacent to each other in an area (10% of surface) thatoverlaps the heparin-binding site. Although these “dead zone (DZ)”mutants had from 0.001%-10% of normal transduction activity, all of thembound heparin as efficiently as wild-type. Transduction by DZ mutantscould be increased, and in three cases restored to wild-type levels, bymaking conservative substitutions.

Five mutants had reduced binding to a mouse monoclonal antibody (A20) inan ELISA and were 2.5-217 fold more resistant to neutralization by A20in vitro. These 5 mutants were adjacent to each other and to the DZ. Atotal of 21 single mutants were 2-10 fold resistant to neutralization bythree human sera or by a large pool of purified human IgG (IVIG,Panglobulin) compared to wild-type. Different sets of mutationsconferred resistance to different human sera. The location of thesemutations was widespread. The size of the area they covered suggestedhuman sera neutralize AAV-2 by binding at least two epitopes. Threemutants were resistant to all sera tested, but combinations of thesethree mutants did not increase resistance to neutralization by IVIG. One(V to K) mutant was identified that bound IVIG 10-fold worse thanwild-type in an all-IVIG ELISA. However, this mutant was not resistantto IVIG neutralization.

In summary, mutations in the “dead zone” affect transduction, but notheparin binding. Mutations around the DZ can increase transduction ordecrease binding of antibodies. The DZ is very acidic (6 acidic, 0 basicamino acids). Without being bound by a particular theory, it may be abinding site for a basic protein, such as bFGF or the bFGF receptor.Since the dead zone is adjacent to the heparin binding site on AAV-2 itmay be that if a protein binds to the dead zone, then that protein mayalso bind heparin. Both bFGF and the bFGF receptor bind heparin.

Example 2 Factor IX Expression in Mice Using Mutant AAV-Hf.IX

rAAV-F.IX is prepared using the rAAV-2 hF.IX vector and the methodsdescribed above. Freeze-thaw lysates of the transfected cells areprecipitated, rAAV virions are purified by two cycles of isopycniccentrifugation; and fractions containing rAAV virions are pooled,dialysed, and concentrated. The concentrated virions are formulated,sterile filtered (0.22 μM) and aseptically filled into glass vials.Vector genomes are quantified by the “Real Time Quantitative PolymeraseChain Reaction” method (Real Time Quantitative PCR. Heid C. A., StevensJ., Livak K. J., and Williams P. M. 1996. Genome Research 6:986-994.Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press).

Female mice 4-6 weeks old are injected with mutant rAAV-hF.IX virions.Mice are anesthetized with an intraperitoneal injection of ketamine (70mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg), and a 1 cm longitudinal incision is madein the lower extremity. Mutant recombinant AAV-hF.IX (2×10¹¹ viralvector genomes/kg in HEPES-Buffered-Saline, pH 7.8) virions is injectedinto the tibialis anterior (25 μL) and the quadriceps muscle (50 μL) ofeach leg using a Hamilton syringe. Incisions are closed with 4-0 Vicrylsuture. Blood samples are collected at seven-day intervals from theretro-orbital plexus in microhematocrit capillary tubes and plasmaassayed for hF.IX by ELISA. Human F.IX antigen in mouse plasma isassessed by ELISA as described by Walter et al. (Prot Natl Acad Sci USA(1996) 3:3056-3061). The ELISA does not cross-react with mouse F.IX. Allsamples are assessed in duplicate. Protein extracts obtained frominjected mouse muscle are prepared by maceration of muscle in PBScontaining leupeptin (0.5 mg/mL) followed by sonication. Cell debris isremoved by microcentrifugation, and 1:10 dilutions of the proteinextracts are assayed for hF.IX in the ELISA. Circulating plasmaconcentrations of hF.IX is measured by ELISA at various time pointspost-IM injection (e.g., zero, three, seven, and eleven weeks).

Example 3 Hemophilia B Treatment in Dogs with Mutant AAV-Cf.IX

A colony of dogs having severe hemophilia B comprising males that arehemizygous and females that are homozygous for a point mutation in thecatalytic domain of the canine factor IX (cF.IX) gene, is used to testthe efficacy of cF.IX delivered by mutant rAAV virions (rAAV-cF.IX). Thesevere hemophilic dogs lack plasma cF.IX, which results in an increasein whole blood clotting time (WBCT) to >60 minutes (normal dogs have aWBCT between 6-8 minutes), and an increase in activated partialthromboplastin time (aPTT) to 50-80 seconds (normal dogs have an aPTTbetween 13-18 seconds). These dogs experience recurrent spontaneoushemorrhages. Typically, significant bleeding episodes are successfullymanaged by the single intravenous infusion of 10 mL/kg of normal canineplasma; occasionally, repeat infusions are required to control bleeding.

Under general anesthesia, hemophilia B dogs are injected intramuscularlywith rAAV1-cF.IX virions at a dose of 1×10¹² vg/kg. The animals are notgiven normal canine plasma during the procedure.

Whole blood clotting time is assessed for cF.IX in plasma. Activatedpartial thromboplastin time is measured. A coagulation inhibitor screenis also performed. Plasma obtained from a treated hemophilic dog andfrom a normal dog is mixed in equal volumes and is incubated for 2 hoursat 37° C. The inhibitor screen is scored as positive if the aPTTclotting time is 3 seconds longer than that of the controls (normal dogplasma incubated with imidazole buffer and pre-treatment hemophilic dogplasma incubated with normal dog plasma). Neutralizing antibody titeragainst AAV vector is assessed.

Example 4 Hemophilia B Treatment in Humans with Mutant AAV-Hf.IX A.Muscle Delivery

On Day 0 of the protocol patients are infused with hF.IX concentrate tobring factor levels up to ˜100%, and, under ultrasound guidance, mutantrAAV-h.FIX virions are injected directly into 10-12 sites in the vastuslateralis of either or both anterior thighs. Injectate volume at eachsite is 250-500 μL, and sites are at least 2 cm apart. Local anesthesiato the skin is provided by ethyl chloride or eutectic mixture of localanesthetics. To facilitate subsequent muscle biopsy, the skin overlyingseveral injection sites is tattooed and the injection coordinatesrecorded by ultrasound. Patients are observed in the hospital for 24 hafter injection; routine isolation precautions will be observed duringthis period to minimize any risk of horizontal transmission of virions.Patients are discharged and seen daily in outpatient clinic daily forthree days after discharge, then weekly at the home hemophilia centerfor the next eight weeks, then twice monthly up to five months, themmonthly for the remainder of the year, then annually in follow-up.Circulating plasma levels of hF.IX are quantified using ELISA asdescribed above.

B. Liver Delivery

Using the standard Seldinger technique, the common femoral artery iscannulated with an angiographic introducer sheath. The patient is thenheparinized by IV injection of 100 U/kg of heparin. A pigtail catheteris then advanced into the aorta and an abdominal aortogram is performed.Following delineation of the celiac and hepatic arterial anatomy, theproper HA is selected using a standard selective angiography catheter(Simmons, Sos-Omni, Cobra or similar catheters). Prior to insertion intothe patient, all catheters are flushed with normal saline. Selectivearteriogram is then performed using a non-ionic contrast material(Omnipaque or Visipaque). The catheter is removed over a 0.035 wire(Bentsen, angled Glide, or similar wire). A 6F Guide-sheath (or guidecatheter) is then advanced over the wire into the common HA. The wire isthen exchanged for a 0.018 wire (FlexT, Microvena Nitenol, or similarwire) and a 6X2 Savvy balloon is advanced over the wire into the properHA distal to the gastrodoudenal artery. The wire is then removed, thecatheter tip position confirmed by hand injection of contrast into theballoon catheter, and the lumen flushed with 15 ml of heparinized normalsaline (NS) to fully clear the contrast. Prior to infusion of theAAV-hFIX, the balloon is inflated to 2 atm to occlude the flow lumen ofthe HA. AAV-hFIX, at a dose of 8×10E10-2×10E12, is brought to a finalvolume of approximately less than or equal to 40 ml (depending on doseand weight of patient) and is then infused over 10-12 minutes using anautomatic volumetric infusion pump. Three milliliters (ml) of normalsaline (NS) are then infused (at the same rate as the AAV-hFIX), toclear the void volume of the catheter. The balloon remains inflated for2 minutes at which time the balloon is deflated and the catheterremoved. A diagnostic arteriogram of the femoral puncture site is thenperformed in the ipsilateral anterior oblique projection. The puncturesite is closed by standard methods, e.g., utilizing a percutaneousclosure device using either a 6 F Closer (Perclose Inc., Menlo Park,Calif.) or a 6 F Angioseal, or by manual compression applied for 15 to30 minutes at the site of catheter removal.

Example 5 Isolation and Characterization of a New Caprine AAV A. CellCulture and Virus Isolation

Ovine adenovirus preparations with evidence of parvovirus contaminationwere isolated from caprine ileum as follows. Tissue was homogenized inEagle's MEM medium containing Earles salts (PH 7.2) and gentomycin. Thehomogenate was clarified by low speed centrifugation (1,500×g) for 20minutes and filter-sterilized though a 0.45 μm device. Supernatant (500μl) was inoculated onto a 25 cm² flask containing primary cultures offetal lamb kidney cells at passage 3 and incubated with fetal bovineserum (USA) and lactalbumin hydrolysate (USA) at 37° C. in humid, 5% CO₂incubator for one week. Cells were trypsinized, split, and incubatedagain as described above and finally assayed for typical adenoviralcytophatic effect (CPE). Flasks showing CPE were frozen at −70° C.,thawed and layered onto other cell types. These flasks were laterincubated and tested for CPE.

Other cell types used included non-immortalized (passage 8) ovine fetalturbinate cells derived from fetal ovine tissue and Maden Darby bovinekidney cells, maintained by long-term passage (used at passage 160).Porcine trypsine (USA) was used in all tissue culture processes and nohuman cell cultures or products were used.

B. Viral DNA Isolation and AAV Sequence Identification and Comparison

Four preparations from different cell cultures and passages wereprocessed individually for DNA extraction. Virus-containing supernatantwas treated with proteinase K (200 μg) in digestion buffer (10 mMTris-HCl (PH 8.0), 10 mM EDTA (PH 8.0) and 0.5% SDS) and incubated at37° C. for 1 hour. Following phenol chloroform extraction and ethanolprecipitation the viral DNA was resuspended in TE.

The DNA content of each preparation was determined by PicoGreen DNAquantitation (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) and the preparations werediluted to 20 ng/μl to standardize DNA concentration for subsequent PCRassays.

Oligonucleotide Primers

Oligonucleotide primers were selected on the basis of sequencealignments from segments that were highly conserved among known AAVs.

The forward primer 1 (GTGCCCTTCTACGGCTGCGTCAACTGGACCAATGAGAACTTTCC) (SEQID NO:23), was complementary to the helicase domain and the reverseprimer 2 (GGAATCGCAATGCCAATTTCCTGAGGCATTAC) (SEQ ID NO:24), wascomplementary to the DNA binding domain. The expected size of PCRfragments was 1.5 kb.

PCR Amplifications

All reactions were performed in 50 μl in an automated EppendorfMastercycler Gradient thermocycler (PerkinElmer, Boston, Mass.). Eachreaction mixture contained 200 ng of template DNA, 1 μM eacholigonucleotide primer, 1 mM Mn(Oac)₂, 200 μM each deoxynucleosidetriphosphate (dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP), and 1.0 unit of rTthpolymerase, XL (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) in 1×XL BufferII. Ampliwax PCR gem 100 was used to facilitate hot start (AppliedBiosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Cycling conditions were as follows: 2min of denaturation at 94° C., followed by 35 cycles of 15 s ofdenaturation at 94° C., 30 s of annealing at 45° C., and 2 min ofelongation at 72° C.

PCR products (10 μl) were electrophoretically separated in a 1% NuSieveagarose gel (FMC BioProducts, Rockland, Minn.), stained with ethidiumbromide, and visualized by UV light. DNA molecular markers were used oneach gel to facilitate the determination of the sizes of the reactionproducts.

To control for specificity of the assay, PCR was also performed with 100ng of DNA from a plasmid containing AAV2 sequences.

DNA Sequencing

PCR products were purified on 1% low-melting agarose gels (FMCBioproducts, Rockland, Me.), and the sequences were determined usingprimers designed from AAV-5 sequences.

Sequence data was analyzed with the NTI vector suite software package(InforMax, Frederick, Md.).

Virus preparations from different cell cultures and passages wereprocessed individually for DNA extraction and PCR analysis. PCRamplification using primers forward 1 and reverse 2 revealed thepresence of parvovirus-like sequences in all four preparations. Sequenceanalysis revealed the presence of AAV sequences. The VP1 ORF of caprineAAV, corresponding to nucleotides 2,207 to 4,381 of AAV-5 genome, has93% nucleotide identity (2,104/2,266, Gaps 6/2,266) with primate AAV-5(see FIGS. 12A-12B) isolated from humans (J. Virol 1999; 73:1309-1319).Protein comparison showed 94% identity (682/726) and 96% similarity(698/726) between the primate AAV-5 and caprine AAV VP1 proteins (see,FIG. 13). Most if not all mutations appeared to be on the surface (see,FIG. 15). FIG. 16 shows the predicted location of the surface aminoacids that differ between AAV-5 and caprine AAV, based on the surfacestructure of the AAV-2 capsid. The 3 filled triangles representinsertions in caprine AAV, relative to AAV-2, that are likely to belocated on the surface.

Without being bound by a particular theory, surface mutations wereprobably driven by selective pressure due to the humoral immune systemand/or adaptation to ruminant receptors. The lack of changes innon-surface exposed areas may imply a lack of pressure from the cellularimmune response. These mutated regions in the caprine virus may improvethe resistance to pre-existing human anti-AAV5 antibodies.

The caprine AAV sequence was compared to other AAV serotypes and theseserotypes were compared with each other in order to analyze thedifferences in the non-conserved region. In particular, FIGS. 14A-14Hshow a comparison of the amino acid sequence of VP1 from primate AAV-1,AAV-2, AAV-3B, AAV-4, AAV-6-AAV-8, AAV-5 and caprine AAV. Conservedamino acids in the sequences are indicated by * and the accessibility ofthe various amino acid positions based on the crystal structure isshown. B indicates that the amino acid is buried between the inside andoutside surface. I indicates the amino acid is found on the insidesurface and O indicates the amino acid is found on the outside surface.

The non-conserved region between AAV-5 and caprine AAV includes 43mutations. 17 of these 43 mutations are non-conserved between AAV-2 andAAV-8. Only one of these mutations originated in the same amino acid incaprine AAV and AAV-8. The non-conserved region between AAV-5 andcaprine AAV includes 348 amino acids. This non-conserved region iscompressed to 157 amino acids when analyzing the region containing the17 joint mutations.

Tables 8-11 show the results of the comparisons.

TABLE 8 Mutations in surface (O) residues of AAV-2 vs. AAV-8 and AAV-5vs. Caprine-AAV AAV-2 vs. AAV-8 AAV-5 vs. Caprine-AAV mutations(x)/surface mutations (*)/surface Region residues (O) residues (O)100-200 04/19 (+2 insertions) 00/19 200-300 01/20 01/20 300-400 16/3103/30 400-500 20/46 (+1 insertion) 11/43 (+1 insertion) 500-600 13/2704/30 700-750 05/24 01/24 100-750 59/167 (35%) 20/167 (12%) 65% identity88% identity

TABLE 9 Mutations in surface (O) residues of AAV-2 vs. all AAVs. AAV2vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV2 vs. AAV1AAV3a AAV4 AAV5 AAV6 AAV7 AAV8 Caprine AAV Region mut/surfacemut/surface mut/surface mut/surface mut/surface mut/surface mut/surfacemut/surface 100-200 01/19 00/19 08/19 10/19 01/19 05/19 04/19 10/19 (1ins) (1 ins) (3 del) (1 ins) (1 ins) (2 ins) 200-300 02/20 02/20 07/2006/20 01/20 03/20 01/20 06/20 (2 ins) (3 ins) (2 ins) (1 ins) 300-40015/31 11/31 24/31 17/30 17/31 14/31 16/31 18/30 (6 del) (6 del) 400-50021/46 14/46 36/46 36/44 21/46 22/46 20/46 37/44 (3 ins) (ins, 1del) (3ins) (1 del) (1 ins) 500-600 10/27 07/27 15/27 15/30 10/27 10/27 13/2717/30 700-750 06/24 00/24 13/24 11/24 06/24 07/24 05/24 11/24 100-75055/167 34/167 (20%) 103/167 95/167 56/167 61/167 59/167 99/167 (59%)(33%) 80% identity (62%) (57%) (34%) (37%) (35%) 41% identity 67% 38%43% 66% 63% 65% identity identity identity identity identity identity

TABLE 10 Surface Caprine identity (%) AAV1 AAV3a AAV4 AAV5 AAV6 AAV7AAV8 AAV AAV2 67 80 38 43 66 63 65 41 AAV5 88

TABLE 11 Capsid similarity Caprine (%) AAV1 AAV3a AAV4 AAV5 AAV6 AAV7AAV8 AAV AAV2 83 87 59 56 83 82 83 56

Example 6 Immunoreactivity of Caprine AAV and Comparison to Other AAVsA. Neutralization Activity of Primate AAV Serotypes

The neutralization activity of the primate AAV serotypes indicated inTable 12 was assessed using the methods described above.Immunoreactivity was determined using a purified pooled human IgG(designated IVIg 8 in Tables 12 and 13).

As shown in Tables 12 and 13, most serotypes were neutralized by thepooled human IgG at clinically relevant concentrations. AAV-4 and AAV-8were more resistant to neutralization than AAV-1, AAV-2 and AAV-6, whichwere more resistant to neutralization than AAV-3, which was moreresistant to neutralization than AAV-5.

B. Neutralization Activity of Caprine AAV vs. Primate AAV Serotypes

The neutralization activity of goat AAV was compared to primate AAV-5using the methods described above. Immunoreactivity was determined usinga purified pooled human IgG (designated IVIg 8 in Table 14). As shown inTable 14, caprine AAV displayed more resistance to neutralization thanAAV-5. Table 14 also shows the neutralization activity of AAV-1, AAV-2,AAV-3, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6 and AAV-8, as determined in the aboveexample, relative to the caprine AAV.

In another experiment, the neutralization activity of caprine AAVrelative to AAV-8 was examined using three different purified pools ofhuman IgG, designated IVIg 3, IVIg 6 and IVIg 8, respectively, in Tables15 and 16. As shown in the tables, caprine AAV was more resistant toneutralization than AAV-8 using all three pools of human IgG.

TABLE 13 Lowest concentration of IVIG (mg/ml) showing >50%neutralization of the virus IVIG (Panglobulin, ZLB Bioplasma, Vectorlot# 1838-00351) ) AAV1 10 AAV2 10 AAV3B 1 AAV4 50 AAV5 0.1 AAV6 10 AAV850

TABLE 14 Lowest concentration of IVIG (mg/ml) showing >50%neutralization of the virus IVIG (Panglobulin, ZLB Bioplasma, Vectorlot# 1838-00351) ) AAV5 0.1 Caprine-AAV 50

TABLE 16 Lowest concentration of IVIG (mg/ml) showing >50%neutralization of the virus. IVIG (Panglobulin, IVIG (Panglobulin, IVIG(Baxter, ZLB Bioplasma, ZLB Bioplasma, Polygam S/D, Vector lot #1838-00299) lot# 1838-00351) lot# 02J06AX11) AAV8 10 10 10 Caprine- 4040 40 AAV

Example 7 Ability of Caprine AAV to Transduce Striatal Neurons and GlialCells and Comparison to Other AAVs

In order to examine the ability of the various AAVs to transducestriatal neurons and glial cells, the following experiment was done.Primary cultures of dissociated striatal neurons were prepared fromembryonic day 18 Sprague-Dawley rat embryos. Dissected striatal tissuewas minced into small pieces and was incubated in trypsin for 30 min.The tissue was then triturated through a Pasteur pipette and cells wereplated at a density of 350,000 per well in 12-well culture dishescontaining round glass 18 mm coverslips coated with poly-D-lysine. Theculture medium was neurobasal medium supplemented with 2% B-27, 0.5 mML-glutamine and 25 mM L-glutamic acid. Cultures were maintained at 37°C. in 5% CO₂ and were used in experiments two to three weeks afterdissociation. At this stage, dopaminegic and striatal neurons aredistinguished both morphologically and by expression of biologicalmarkers.

The striatal cultures were incubated for five days with 10⁴ MOI rAAVvirions derived from AAV-2, AAV-4, AAV-5, AAV-6, AAV-8, and caprine AAVthat contained the β-galactosidase gene (LacZ), prepared using thetriple transfection method described in Example 1. For caprine AAV, thecapsid coding sequence present in pHLP19 (described in U.S. Pat. No.6,001,650, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) wassubstituted with the caprine VP1 coding sequence as follows. Briefly,plasmid pHLP19 was digested with SwaI and AgeI (New England Biolabs,Beverly, Mass. 01915-5599), the fragment of interest was purified on a1% low-melting agarose gel (FMC Bioproducts, Rockland, Me.), and usedfor ligation with the PCR fragment containing the caprine capsid. Thecaprine capsid PCR fragment was amplified using a forward primer:AAATCAGGTATGTCTTTTGTTGATCACCC (SEQ ID NO:27) and a reverse primer:ACACGAATTAACCGGTTTATTGAGGGTATGCGACATGAATGGG (SEQ ID NO:28). The PCRfragment was digested with the enzyme AgeI (New England Biolabs,Beverly, Mass. 01915-5599) and used for ligation with the digestedplasmid.

Efficient and sustained expression of the β-gal protein was seen instriatal neurons following transduction with the vectors. Expressionefficiency was highest in AAV6 followed by AAV8, AAV2, AAV5, caprine AAVand AAV4. AAV6 transduced neurons exclusively, whereas AAV5-mediatedgene transfer was inefficient in neurons but transduced the glial cells.All other vectors transduced both neurons and glial cells.

Example 8 Ability of Caprine AAV to Transduce Muscle and Comparison toOther AAVs

In order to determine the ability of the various AAVs to transducemuscle in the presence or absence of IVIG, the following experiment wasdone. Male SCID mice (15-25 g) were injected intramuscularly with 2e11vector genomes of caprine rAAV virions, rAAV-1 virions, or rAAV-8virions (5 mice per group), each of said virions encoding human factorIX. These virions were made using the triple transfection methoddescribed in Example 1. The capsid coding sequence present in pHLP19 wassubstituted with the caprine VP1 coding sequence as described above.Retro-orbital blood was collected 1, and 2 weeks after vector injectionand plasma was extracted. Mice tested with IVIG (Carimune: purifiedimmunoglobulin from a pool of human serum, ZLB Bioplasma,lot#03287-00117) were injected via the tail vein (250 μl), 24 hoursbefore the vector injection. Human FIX was measured in the plasmasamples using a hFIX ELISA.

As shown in FIG. 17, caprine rAAV virions did not transduce muscle. therAAV-8 and rAAV-1 virions displayed similar levels of expression ofhFIX. AAV-1 was more resistant to neutralization than AAV-8 in vivo.

Example 9 Ability of Caprine AAV to Transduce Liver and Comparison toOther AAVs and Biodistribution of Proteins Expressed from GenesDelivered by Caprine AAV Virions

In order to determine the ability of the various AAVs to transduce liverin the presence or absence of IVIG, the following experiment was done.Male SCID mice (15-25 g) were injected via the tail vein with 5e11vector genomes of caprine rAAV virions or rAAV-8 virions (5 mice pergroup). The virions included the gene encoding human factor IX (hFIX).The rAAV-2 virion data below was from another experiment. In particular,the virions were generated using plasmid pAAV-hFIX16, containing thehuman factor IX gene under the control of a liver-specific promoter(described in Miao et al., Mol. Ther. (2000) 1:522-532). PlasmidpAAV-hFIX16 is an 11,277 bp plasmid encoding a human Factor IX minigene.In this construct, the FIX cDNA is interrupted between exons 1 and 2with a deleted form of intron 1 which has been shown to increaseexpression of FIX. FIX expression is under the transcriptional controlof the ApoE hepatic control region (HCR) and the human alpha 1antitrypsin promoter (hAAT), as well as a bovine growth hormonepolyadenylation signal (gGH PA). The backbone of plasmid pAAV-hFIX16contains the β-lactamase gene, conferring ampicillin resistance, abacterial origin of replication, a M13/F1 origin of replication, and afragment of bacteriophage lambda DNA. The lambda DNA increases the sizeof the plasmid backbone to 6,966 bp, which prevents its packaging duringAAV vector production.

The recombinant AAV virions were produced using the triple transfectionmethod described above. For the caprine rAAV virions, the VP1 codingsequence present in plasmid pHLP19 was substituted with the caprine VP1coding sequence as described above.

After injection, retro-orbital blood was collected 1, 2, 4 (5 mice pergroup) and 8 weeks (2 mice per group) after injection and plasma wasextracted. Mice tested with IVIG (Panglobulin: purified immunoglobulinfrom a pool of human serum, ZLB Bioplasma, lot#1838-00299) were injectedvia the tail vein (250 μl, 24 hours before the vector injection. HumanFIX was measured in the plasma samples by a hFIX ELISA.

As shown in FIG. 18, transdution of liver with the recombinant caprineAAV virions after intravenous administration was low. Higher hFIXexpression was seen using the rAAV-8 virions than with the rAAV-2virions, and rAAV-2 virions showed higher expression than the caprinerAAV virions. The caprine rAAV virions were more resistant toneutralization than the rAAV-2 virions in vivo. Human FIX expression wasreduced in the caprine rAAV-injected mice with preexisting IVIGneutralizing titers of 120 while the expression of hFIX was completelyblocked in the rAAV-2-injected mice with preexisting IVIG neutralizingtiters of 10.

For biodistribution analysis, mice (2 mice per group) were sacrificedand organs were collected 4 weeks after vector injection. Organscollected included brain, testis, muscle (quadriceps), kidney, spleen,lung, heart, and liver. To measure hFIX, quantitative-PCR was done onDNA samples extracted from different tissues. As shown in FIG. 19,biodistribution of intravenously-administered caprine rAAV virions inmale SCID mice showed that the caprine rAAV virions had lung tropism.

Example 10 Isolation and Characterization of a New Bovine AAV

Evidence of parvovirus contamination was seen in bovine adenovirus (BAV)type 8, strain Misk/67 (available from the ATCC, Manassas, Va.,Accession no. VR-769) isolated from calf lungs, using techniques knownin the art. This new isolate was named “AAV-C1.” AAV-C1 was partiallyamplified by PCR, and sequenced. FIGS. 20A and 20B show the nucleotidesequence and amino acid sequence respectively, of VP1 from AAV-C1. TheVP1 amino acid sequence from AAV-C1 was compared with other AAV VP1s. Inparticular, FIGS. 21A-21H show a comparison of the amino acid sequenceof VP1 from AAV-C1 with primate AAV-1, AAV-2, AAV-3B, AAV-4, AAV-6,AAV-8, AAV-5 and caprine AAV. Conserved amino acids in the sequences areindicated by * and the accessibility of the various amino acid positionsbased on the crystal structure is shown. B indicates that the amino acidis buried between the inside and outside surface. I indicates the aminoacid is found on the inside surface and O indicates the amino acid isfound on the outside surface.

VP1 from AAV-C1 displayed approximately 76% identity with AAV-4. AAV-C1displayed approximately 54% identity with AAV-5 VP1, with high homologyin the Rep protein, the first 137 amino acids of AAV-5 VP1 and the nontranslated region after the stop of AAV-5 VP1 (not shown). Thus, AAV-C1appears to be a natural hybrid between AAV-5 and AAV-4. AAV-C1 alsodisplayed approximately 58% sequence identity with VP from AAV-2 andAAV-8, approximately 59% sequence identity with VP1s from AAV-1 andAAV-6, and approximately 60% sequence identity with VP1 from AAV-3B.

The sequence differences between AAV-4 and AAV-C1 were scatteredthroughout the capsid, unlike the differences between AAV-5 and caprineAAV (AAV-G1), wherein the changes were exclusively in the C-terminalhypervariable region of VP1. The similarity with the AAV-4 sequence wasfrom the VP2 start to the capsid stop. AAV-C1 appears to be one of themost divergent of the mammalian AAVs with approximately 58% sequencehomology with AAV-2. In particular, the bovine AAV described in Schmidtet at. was partially amplified from bovine adenovirus type 2. Comparisonof the nucleotide sequence of VP1 from AAV-C1 and the bovine AAVdescribed in Schmidt et al. showed 12 nucleotide changes 5 amino aciddifferences. These differences occurred at positions 334 (Q substitutedfor H present in AAV-C1 VP1), 464 (K substituted for N present in AAV-C1VP1), 465 (T substituted for K present in AAV-C1 VP1), 499 (Rsubstituted for G present in AAV-C1 VP1) and 514 (G substituted for Rpresent in AAV-C1 VP1).

The full capsid of AAV-C1 was cloned in a plasmid that was used toproduce pseudotyped AAV-2 vectors. An AAV-C1 vector containing the LacZgene (AAV-C1-LacZ) was produced for further characterization, using thetriple transfection techniques described above with the exception thatthe capsid sequence present in pHLP19 was replaced with the bovinecapsid sequence. The titer of AAV-C1-LacZ (vg/ml) was calculated usingquantitative PCR (Q-PCR) as described above. As shown in Table 17,AAV-C1 LacZ vector was produced efficiently; high titers of vector(2.45e10 vg/ml) were detected by Q-PCR. AAV-C1 LacZ vector showedefficient transduction of cells in vitro (cells expressing LacZ werepresent in numbers comparable to other AAVs).

TABLE 17 Q-PCR analysis of AAV-C1-LacZ vector. Average Std dev Sample(vg/mL) (vg/mL) % CV AAV2-lacZ 1.11E+11 1.09E+10 9.9 AAV-C1-LacZ2.45E+10 1.88E+09 7.7 LacZ reference 9.96E+12 7.11E+11 7.1

Example 11 Immunoreactivity of Bovine AAV and Comparison to Other AAVs

The neutralization activity of bovine AAV-C1 relative to primate AAV-2was assessed using the methods described above in Example 6.Immunoreactivity was determined using a purified pooled human IgG(IVIG-8, Panglobulin Lot #1838-00351, ZLB Bioplasma AG, Berne,Switzerland). Neutralizing assays in vitro showed that AAV-C1 was 16times more resistant to neutralization by human IVIG than AAV-2. Thelowest concentration of IVIG (mg/ml) showing more than 50%neutralization of AAV-2 was 0.2 mg/ml while AAV-C1 was 3.25 mg/ml.

Thus, methods for making and using mutant AAV virions with decreasedimmunoreactivity are described. Although preferred embodiments of thesubject invention have been described in some detail, it is understoodthat obvious variations can be made without departing from the spiritand the scope of the invention as defined by the claims herein.

1. A mutated adeno-associated virus (AAV) capsid protein that whenpresent in an AAV virion imparts decreased immunoreactivity to thevirion as compared to the corresponding wild-type virion.
 2. The proteinof claim 1, wherein the mutation comprises at least one amino acidsubstitution, deletion or insertion to the native protein.
 3. Theprotein of claim 2, wherein the mutation comprises at least one aminoacid substitution.
 4. The protein of claim 3, wherein the at least oneamino acid substitution is in the spike or plateau region of the AAVvirion surface.
 5. The protein of claim 4, wherein the amino acidsubstitution comprises a substitution of one or more of the amino acidsoccurring at a position corresponding to a position of the AAV-2 VP2capsid selected from the group consisting of amino acid 126, 127, 128,130, 132, 134, 247, 248, 315, 334, 354, 357, 360, 361, 365, 372, 375,377, 390, 393, 394, 395, 396, 407, 411, 413, 418, 437, 449, 450, 568,569, and
 571. 6. The protein of claim 5, wherein the naturally occurringamino acid at the position is substituted with an alanine.
 7. Theprotein of claim 6, wherein the protein further comprises a substitutionof histidine for the amino acid occurring at the position correspondingto the amino acid found at position 360 of AAV-2 VP2.
 8. The protein ofclaim 5, wherein the protein comprises a substitution of lysine for theamino acid occurring at the position corresponding to the amino acidfound at position 571 of AAV-2 VP2.
 9. A polynucleotide encoding themutated protein of claim
 1. 10. A polynucleotide encoding the mutatedprotein of claim
 5. 11. A polynucleotide encoding the mutated protein ofclaim
 6. 12. A polynucleotide encoding the mutated protein of claim 8.13. A recombinant AAV virion comprising the mutated protein of claim 1.14. A recombinant AAV virion comprising the mutated protein of claim 5.15. A recombinant AAV virion comprising the mutated protein of claim 6.16. A recombinant AAV virion comprising the mutated protein of claim 8.17. The recombinant AAV virion of claim 13, wherein said virioncomprises a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding an antisense RNAor a ribozymes.
 18. The recombinant AAV virion of claim 13, wherein saidvirion comprises a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding atherapeutic protein operably linked to control elements capable ofdirecting the in vivo transcription and translation of said protein. 19.The recombinant AAV virion of claim 14, wherein said virion comprises aheterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding a therapeutic proteinoperably linked to control elements capable of directing the in vivotranscription and translation of said protein.
 20. The recombinant AAVvirion of claim 15, wherein said virion comprises a heterologous nucleicacid molecule encoding a therapeutic protein operably linked to controlelements capable of directing the in vivo transcription and translationof said protein.
 21. The recombinant AAV virion of claim 16, whereinsaid virion comprises a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encoding atherapeutic protein operably linked to control elements capable ofdirecting the in vivo transcription and translation of said protein. 22.A method of delivering a recombinant AAV virion to a cell or tissue of avertebrate subject, said method comprising: (a) providing a recombinantAAV virion according to claim 13; (b) delivering said recombinant AAVvirion to said cell or tissue, whereby said protein is expressed at alevel that provides a therapeutic effect.
 23. The method of claim 22,wherein said cell or tissue is a muscle cell or tissue.
 24. The methodof claim 23, wherein said muscle cell or tissue is derived from skeletalmuscle.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein said recombinant AAV virionis delivered into said cell or tissue in vivo.
 26. The method of claim25, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered by intramuscularinjection.
 27. The method of claim 22, wherein said recombinant AAVvirion is delivered into said cell or tissue in vitro.
 28. The method ofclaim 22, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered into thebloodstream.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein said recombinant AAVvirion is delivered intravenously.
 30. The method of claim 28, whereinsaid recombinant AAV virion is delivered intraarterially.
 31. The methodof claim 22, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered to theliver.
 32. The method of claim 22, wherein said recombinant AAV virionis delivered to the brain.
 33. A method of delivering a recombinant AAVvirion to a cell or tissue of a vertebrate subject, said methodcomprising: (a) providing a recombinant AAV virion, wherein said AAVvirion comprises (i) a non-primate, mammalian adeno-associated virus(AAV) capsid protein that when present in an AAV virion impartsdecreased immunoreactivity to the virion as compared to immunoreactivityof primate AAV-2; and (ii) a heterologous nucleic acid molecule encodinga therapeutic protein operably linked to control elements capable ofdirecting the in vivo transcription and translation of said protein; (b)delivering said recombinant AAV virion to said cell or tissue, wherebysaid protein is expressed at a level that provides a therapeutic effect.34. The method of claim 33, wherein said cell or tissue is a muscle cellor tissue.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein said muscle cell ortissue is derived from skeletal muscle.
 36. The method of claim 33,wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered into said cell ortissue in vivo.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein said recombinant AAVvirion is delivered by intramuscular injection.
 38. The method of claim33, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered into said cell ortissue in vitro.
 39. The method of claim 33, wherein said recombinantAAV virion is delivered into the bloodstream.
 40. The method of claim39, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered intravenously. 41.The method of claim 39, wherein said recombinant AAV virion is deliveredintraarterially.
 42. The method of claim 33, wherein said recombinantAAV virion is delivered to the liver.
 43. The method of claim 33,wherein said recombinant AAV virion is delivered to the brain.